Class -S.:^i5^ 

Book_^__^_ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



SPRAYING CROPS 



Why, When, and How 



BY 



CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc. 

Professor of Zoology and Entomology, iVezu Hampsliire 
College of Agricnltnre and the MecJianic Arts 



ILLUSTRATED 



3^nurth Sbtttmt— ISrhtsrS. Urhirtttrit anJj (Srratlg SttlargpJi 



NEW YORK 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
1903 




THE LiBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Copies Received 

jUN IT 1903 

A Copyright Entry 
SlaSS ^ XXc. No. 



Copyright iSgi 
By CLARENCE M. AVEED 

CorYRIGHT 1903 

By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 



spraying has nozu conic to be an established part of the 
work of fruit-growing. — L. H. Bailey. 

The time is now ripe for the declaration that profitable 
apple culture demands systematic spraying. — Frederick D. 
Chester. 

Spray! Spray! Spray! Spray for insects and for fun- 
gous diseases. This is one of the secrets of successful fruit- 
growing. — Delaware Farm and Home. 

/ believe in spraying, for I have tried and proven it. In 
many portions of our coitntry to-day it is just as miicJi a 
necessity as is under draining, or fertilising, or killing potato- 
bugs. — Mortimer Whitehead. 

The spray pump might well be adopted as the emblem 
of the fruit grozuer, and on it be inscribed that old legend: 
• By this sign we conquer. — Hon E. L. Smith, Oregon. 

Out of thirty-six tons of grapes last season I did not lose 
five pounds by rot, but I shall spray, rot or no rot. Spraying 
adds greatly to the health of the vines, and consequently to 
the size and beauty of the fruit. — John Burroughs. 

// should be remembered that in all cases success is 
dependent upon the exercise of proper judgment in making 
applications. Know the anemy to be destroyed ; knoz^' the 
remedies that arc most effective ; and, finally, apply them at 
the proper season. Be prompt, thorough and persistent. 
Knowledge and good judgment are more necessary to success 
than any definite rules. — E. G. Lodeman. 



Preface to Second Edition 



This little manual has been prepared for the 
purpose of aiding owners of spraying machines to use 
them to best advantage. The practical results of the 
most recent investigations and experiments have been 
emibodied in it ; and technical terms, so far as possible, 
have been excluded. 

The development of the practice of spraying crops 
furnishes a striking illustration of the practical results 
agriculture may derive from scientific investigation 
and accurate experimentation. Little more than a 
decade has passed since Professor A. J. Cook, then 
of the Michigan Agricultural College, began his 
experiments in spraying apples to prevent the injuries 
caused by the Codling Moth — experiments which first 
proved to the horticultural public that the remedy was 
safe and sure — and to his enthusiastic advocacy of the 
process American fruit-growers are largely indebted 
for the introduction of spraying machinery. The 
success which followed spraying for the Codling Moth 
naturally led to experiments in spraying for other 
insects, and later for fungous diseases ; our early 
knowledge of remedies for the latter being largely due 
to the efiforts of Alessrs Scribner and Galloway, of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. The estab- 
lishment of the state experiment stations has greatly 
aided the acquisition and diffusion of information upon 
the whole subject. 



vii 



viii 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 



The sources of those illustrations on the following 
pages which are not original with the author, are 
indicated in the legends below the picttires. 

C. M. W. 

A^cz^' HaiupsJurc College of Agrieultnrc and flic Mechanic Arts. 
Durham, MarcJi, 1895. 



Preface to Fourth Edition 



In the revision for the present edition an attempt 
has been made to bring this httle book up to the best 
knowledge and practice of the day. I am under 
special obligations to Professor L. R. Jones for the 
revision of the part treating of potato enemies, to 
Professor F. A. Waugh for reading the proof through- 
out, and to Mr W. E. Britton for the loan of the 
electrotype used on page io6. Of course I am under 
obligations also to the great number of workers who 
have made possible the wonderful advance in spraying 
operations during recent years. A book like this can 
only hope to be a compilation of the results of many 
minds, and I have not hesitated to draw freely from 
many sources, giving due credit so far as practicable. 
To all who have thus contributed to the possible use- 
fulness of the book I extend cordial thanks. 

C. M. W. 

Durham, N. H., May, 1903. 



ix 



Contents 



Principles of Spraying. 



PART I 

Spraying the Larger Fruits 

Apple..... 57 Peach 73 

Plum 69 Pear. 76 

Cherry 80 

PART II 

Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock 

Strawberry 85 Grape .......... . 95 

Currant and Gooseberry. . 90 Raspberry 97 

Nursery Stock 99 

PART III 

Spraying Shade-Trees, Ornamental Plants and 
Flowers 

Shade Trees., 107 Rose.... 114 

Flowers , , 115 

PART IV 

Spraying Vegetables, Field-Crops and Domestic 
Animals 

Potato 119 Asparagus 126 

Cabbage 124 Grain Crops 129 

Domestic Animals 132 



SPRAYING CROPS 



PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING 

HABITS OF INSECTS — DEVELOPMENT OF PARASITIC 
GROWTH MIXTURES AND METHODS EMPLOYED 

Growing plants are liable to injury from two classes 
of organisms, — namely, noxious insects and parasitic 
fungi. Although these tiny foes are often considered 
too insignificant to merit serious attention, they 
annually destroy about $500,000,000 worth of crops 
in the United States. By an intelhgent use of the 
spraying machine — a simple apparatus by which cer- 
tain substances that destroy insect and fungous life 
may be distributed over the surfaces of plants — a large 
proportion of this loss may be prevented at compara- 
tively slight expense. The object of this little manual 
is to indicate why, when, and how to spray, to get 
the best results. 

The philosophy of spraying will be better under- 
stood if one has a general knowledge of the habits and 
methods of development of the insect and fungus 
pests against which the spraying machine is used. 
Nearly all of these organisms are weaker and easier 
to destroy at some one period of their existence than 
at any other : consequently, a knowledge of their habits 
and history is often necessary to success. 

SPRAYING AGAINST INSECTS 

The insect against which the spraying machine 
has been most generally used in the northern United 



2 SPRAYIXG CROPS 

States is the Codling Moth or Apple Worm — the 
httle white worm tliat one too often finds near the core 
of the dessert apple. The parent of this httle pest is a 
small chocolate-colored moth (represented at / and 
g) , which appears in spring soon after the blossoms 
have fallen and deposits its eggs in various places 
upon the young apples as well as upon the adjacent 
leaves. In about a week these eggs hatch into 




Codling Moth 

a, injured apple; calyx where young larva generally enters; e, larva; d, 
pupa; z, cocoon; g-,/, moth; /^rhead of larva. (After Riley) 

young larvae wdiich often nibble a little of the green 
surface of the leaf or the fruit before they crawl into 
the little calyx cup at the outer end of the apple to 
burrow into the pulpy part. Some of them enter at 
other places. Once inside the larva continues 
feeding as the apple develops, constantly increasing 
in size, until, at the end of three or four weeks, it is 
about three-fourths of an inch long, and appears as 
represented in e. It has now finished its caterpillar 



SPRAYING AGAINST INSECTS 



3 



growth, and, leaving the apple, it finds some crevice 
in the rough bark, where it spins a slight cocoon, in 
which it changes to the pupa or chrysalis state. 
A fortnight later it emerges from the cocoon as a 
full-fledged moth, like the one which laid the origi- 
nal egg. Thus the curious life-cycle is completed. 
There are generally tw^o broods of the worms each 
season. 

By means of the spraying machine the fruit- 
growler is able to place in the calyx ends of the young 
apples a few particles of poison, so that when the 
newly-hatched worm nibbles at the skin, the chances 
are that it will eat one of these particles, and thus 
cut short at the outset its own career. To do this the 
fruit-grower usually mixes a quarter of a pound of 
Paris green or some similar insecticide with a barrel 
of water, and then, having the barrel in a wagon, he 
drives along the rows of apple trees just after the 
blossoms have fallen oft, and sprays them. The little 
particles of poison are thus distributed over the tree 
in a spray, and when the Vv^ater in which they are 
suspended evaporates, they are left high and dry upon 
the leaves and fruit, where they remain for several 
weeks a menace to insect enemies, until the combined 
action of rain and dew, w^nd and sunshine, dissipates 
their poisonous properties. The spraying is most 
effective if done just after the petals fall, when the 
blossom end of the apple is wide open. As the young 
fruit enlarges, the parts of the calyx close up, holding 
the poison inside so it is ready for the little worms 
when they attempt to eat their way to the core. 
Probably many of them also get some of the poison 
when they take their first meal on the green surface 
of the leaf or fruit. If the first brood of w^orms are 
thus quite generally destroyed, there is no necessity, 
usually, to spray for the second brood; because their 



4 



SPRAYING CROPS 



would-be parents having died in infancy, the worms 
of the second brood do not appear upon the scene. 

Another insect against which the spraying 
machine is often used is the Plum Curcitlio. This 
pest has been for many years one of the most destruc- 
tive enemies of the plum-grower, and is the cause of 
the worminess and premature dropping of the fruit, 
with which so many owners of plum trees are 
familiar. The adult Curculio is a small, hard beetle 
(shown magnified at c), which appears in the plum 




Plum Curculio 

a, larva; d, pupa; c, beetle, magnified; d. plum, showing crescent mark. 
(After Riley) 

orchard early in spring, and feeds upon the foliage 
and flowers until the fruit is well formed. It then 
attacks the young plums, gnawing at them to satisfy 
its hunger, and cutting crescent-shaped marks in the 
skin to deposit its eggs (d). In a short time these 
eggs hatch into little grubs that feed upon the pulp of 
the fruit, gradually working toward the pit. In a few 
weeks they become full-grown (a), by which time 
the infested plums have generally fallen to the 
ground. The larvae then leave the fruit, and, enter- 
ing the soil a short distance, change to pupae (b). 
A little while later they again change and come forth 



SPRAYING AGAINST INSECTS 



5 



as perfect beetles. There is but one brood in the 
season. 

As the eggs of this insect are deposited beneath the 
skin of the fruit, it is manifestly impossible to reach 
the larvae by spraying. But by coating the young 
fruit and foliage with particles of poison we can kill 
many of the parent beetles before they insert the 
eggs, and thus part of the plums will escape. This is 
not a perfect remedy, however, except perhaps in 
large orchards, and must often be supplemented by 
jarring the trees. 




Canker Worm 

<?, eggs; larva; g, pupa; male moth; 3, female moth. (After Riley) 

Besides these two insects affecting the fruit of 
orchard trees, against which the spraying machine is 
especially used, there are many enemies of the foliage 
which are open to destruction by similar means. One 
of the Vv^orst of these pests is the Canker Worm, 
which at more or less frequent intervals during the 
last century has scourged both orchard and shade 
trees in many parts of the United States and Canada. 
It IS represented in its different stages in the picture 
above. The worm or larva hatches from masses of 
small cylindrical eggs (e) deposited upon the bark of 
the tree. It feeds upon the soft parts of the leaves, 
causing a badly infested tree to appear brown and 



6 



SPRAYIXG CROPS 



seared, as if scorched by fire. These worms continue 
feeding for several weeks before becoming full 
grown ; they then descend to the ground, burrow into 
the soil a short distance, and spin silken cocoons, 
within which they change to the pupa or chrysalis 
state and later emerge as moths. The two sexes of 
the moths differ greatly: the male (a) has large, well- 
developed wings, while the female (&) is wingless. 
The latter is of an ash-gray color. On emerging from 
the chrysalis, she crawls to the base of the tree, and 
ascending the trunk, deposits eggs on the twigs or 
branches of the tree. 

The Canker Worm, with nearly all other leaf-, 
eating caterpillars, falls an easy victim to the spraying 
machine. 

FEEDING HABITS OF INSECTS 

Insects take their food in two ways : some bite 
and others suck. The three species mentioned under 
the last heading are examples of those insects which 
take their food by biting, piece by piece, the tissues 
of leaf, stem, or fruit of their host-plant. Because of 
this they may be destroyed by placing particles of 
poison upon the surface of the plant. A large pro- 
portion of the injurious insects have such biting 
mouth-parts ; but there is also an important class 
w^hich have instead of jaws a pointed beak that they 
push into the cells of the plant, and suck out the sap. 
Insects of this kind cannot be destroyed by coating 
the food-plant with particles of poison, for such par- 
ticles will not enter their alimentary system ; conse- 
quently, one must use against them some insecticide 
which kills by contact, either affecting the general 
surface or reaching the interior through the breathing 
tubes. The former are called Contact Poisons and 
the latter Tracheal Poisons. Kerosene is the most 



FUNGOUS DISEASES 



7 



important of the contact poisons and pyrethum or 
insect powder is a good example of a tracheal poison, 
although the various vapor insecticides, like carbon 
bisulphide and hydrocyanic acid gas, also belong here. 

DEVELOPMENT OF PARASITIC FUNGI 

Many other instances of the usefulness of the 
spraying machine in controlling noxious insects will 
be found on the later pages of this little book. To 
illustrate the theory of its use against the fungus 
enemies of crops, as well as the life history of the 
parasitic fungi themselves, we may instance the 
Doz^iiy Mildezx', which causes the Brown Rot of 
grapes. 

The Brown Rot of grapes is a fungous disease — 
that is, it is a diseased condition of the foliage or fruit 
due to the presence of a fungus. This fungus is a 
minute, parasitic plant that develops at the expense of 
the tissues of the grape, thus causing blighting of the 
leaf and decay of the fruit. It attacks all the green 
parts of the vine, including the young shoots, as well 
as the leaves and berries ; and, like other fungi, repro- 
duces by means of spores — ^^minute bodies correspond- 
ing in function to the seeds of flowering plants. 

When one of these spores falls upon a moist leaf 
its contents divide into a number of distinct particles 
which escape through an opening in the spore-wall. 
Each of these particles moves about in the drop of 
water on the leaf for a few minutes, then comes to a 
standstill and germinates by sending out a little tube — 
somewhat as a kernel of corn in moist soil sends out 
its germinating radicle — and this tube penetrates the 
epidermis or skin of the leaf. Once inside, the tube 
continues to grow, pushing about between the cells of 
the leaf, and forming what is called the mycelium or 
vegetative portion of the fungus, which may be likened 



8 



SPRAYING CROPS 



to the roots of the higher plants. As there is Httle 
nourishment to be obtained betzceeii the cells, the 
m}xelium develops minute processes which push 
through the cell walls and absorb the cell contents. A 
small section of an affected leaf, greatly magnified, 
is represented in the accompanying figure, the un- 
shaded double-walled spaces representing the leaf 
cells, the shaded part between the walls the mycelium 
of the fungtis, and the projections marked a, a, the 
processes or suckers that penetrate the cells. 

After this mycelium has developed in the leaf for 
some time, it is ready to produce its spores. Conse- 



quently it sends out through the breathing pores or 
stomata of the leaf its fruiting branches. These bear 
upon their tips small oval bodies which are the spores. 
Some of these fruiting branches are represented mag- 
nified on the next page. The ''mildew'' visible to the 
naked eye is composed of these fruiting branches and 
their spores. It only develops under certain atmos- 
pheric conditions : so that the mycelium may exist in 
the affected parts of the vine for some time before this 
outward manifestation of its presence occurs. Besides 
the spores above described, which are produced during 
the summer season, and conseqtiently are called sum- 
mer spores, there is developed in autumn a dift'erent 
class of spores, by which the fungus passes through 




Section of Leaf Showing' Mycelium of Fungus 

Magnified. (After Farlow) 



FUNGOUS DISEASES 



9 



the winter. Hence, these latter are called the winter 
spores. 

It is evident from the above account of this 
fungus parasite, that remedial or preventive meas- 
ures are useless after the enemy has become estab- 
lished within the tissues of the plant. But its ingress 




Fruiting Branches 

Greatly magnified 



may be prevented by coating the green parts of the 
vine with some substance having a destructive effect 
upon fungus spores. The salts of copper have such 
an effect, and in consequence have come into general 
use as fungicides. 

From the foregoing illustrations the reader will 
have learned that spraying is simply an easy and prac- 
tical method of distributing certain substances having 



10 



SPRAYING CROPS 



a destructive effect upon insect and fungus life over 
the outer surfaces of trees, shrubs, vines, and herba- 
ceous plants. These substances are usually applied in 
a finely powdered condition, and the tiny particles 
stand guard over the plants, killing with remorseless 
certainty any insect or fungus pest that attempts to 
pass through their lines to reach the plant. The par- 
ticles themselves do not enter the plant, but remain on 
the outside until driven off by the combined action of 
wind, rain, dew, and sunshine. This is not true, how- 
ever, of the contact-killing insecticides, which are 
applied directly to the offending insects and do not 
remain on the plant in an effective condition. 

Substances used to destroy insects are called 
insecticides; those used to destroy fungi are called 
fungicides. 

INSECTICIDES USED IN SPRAYING 

The insecticides used in spraying may be broadly 
divided into two classes : ( i ) internal poisons, or 
those which take effect by being eaten along with the 
ordinary food of the insect ; and (2) external irritants, 
or those which act from the outside, — penetrating the 
breathing pores, or causing death by irritation of the 
skin. The most important insecticides are the poisons. 
Of these the most popular are the various combina- 
tions of arsenic. 

Paris green is a chemical combination of arsenic 
and copper, containing about 58 per cent of arsenious 
acid; about 31 per cent of copper oxide and 10 per 
cent of acetic acid. Technically it is called copper 
aceto-arsenite. It is almost insoluble in water ; but 
there is often a small percentage of it soluble, and 
to prevent the injury this may do to foliage it pays 
to add a little fresh lime water (made by slaking fresh 
lime in water) to the spraying mixture. It may be 



IXSECTICIDES 



II 



used in spraying potatoes, apple trees, and most shade 
trees, at the rate of four ounces to 50 gallons of water. 
On stone fruits, use half this strength, unless lime is 
added, although in the case of peaches great care must 
be used if Paris green is applied. Arsenate of lead 
is safer. Paris green is a heavy powder, and does 
not stay long in suspension ; hence it must be kept 
constantly stirred to prevent its settling to the bottom 
of the vessel. Buy Paris green in as finely powdered 
condition as possible, and get a reliable brand. 
Paris green is sometimes adulterated w^ith arsenious 
acid, which gives a larger per cent of soluble arsenic 
than should be present. Gypsum or calcium sulphate 
is also often used as an adulterant. Most experiment 
stations are able to give the names of reliable brands 
of Paris green. 

Color Tests for Paris Green — Upon this subject 
yiv A. V. Stubenrauch says in a bulletin of the Illinois 
Experiment Station: 'Terhaps the simplest test to 
determine whether a green has been extensively adul- 
terated is the color test. Pure Paris green has a bright 
green color, a shade or two lighter than emerald. Any 
samples which have a dull or a pale, w^ashed-out ap- 
pearance should at once be discarded without further 
question. By placing a small quantity in, say a 
homeopathic vial, and tapping the latter gently on the 
bottom or side, adulterants can be made to separate 
from the green, and can then be seen as white streaks 
or patches against the glass sides of the vial. The 
pure green remains bright green against the glass. 
In connection with the color test. Professor Wood- 
worth of the California Station has devised the fol- 
lowing simple test, which can be made by anyone and 
w^hich will show immediately if the sample is worthy 
of any further consideration : Place upon a clean glass 
plate a small quantity of green, what one can easily 



12 



SPRAYING CROPS 



pick Up on the point of a penknife; tilt the plate at a 
slight angle and gently tap the edge, just enough to 
cause the green to flow down leaving a streak across 
the plate. If the green is of good quality, the streak 
will be a bright, light emerald green ; if adulterated, a 
whitish or a sickly dull green. Any samples which 
exhibit the latter are either adulterated or of low grade 
and as such are not worthy of further consideration." 

Arsenate of Lead — This poison has recently come 
into general use as an insecticide. It has many ad- 
vantages as it is a very fine insoluble powder, that 
remains in suspension a long time and does not burn 
the foliage even when applied at the rate of 3 or 
more pounds to 50 gallons of water. It also adheres 
to the foliage better than Paris green and may be seen 
upon the leaves more readily so that the thoroughness 
of the spraying may be more easily determined. On 
the other hand it is rather slow in its action. It should 
be bought in the form of a thick paste. 'Tor the 
garden or for the small orchard,'' writes Professor 
John B. Smith, ''this arsenate of lead in paste form 
is the most convenient and reliable arsenical poison 
that we have. There is no danger of using too much 
of it, and it can be employed on plants of all kinds. 
I used it on my roses to destroy the slugs and applied 
it on all other plants that were subject to caterpillar 
attack. It has the advantage of whitening the foliage 
somewhat, so that its presence is easily recognizable, 
and it has lasting qualities superior to any of the other 
arsenical poisons known to me. In the peach orchard 
there is nothing so good if leaf-eating insects are to be 
combated." The forms of arsenate of lead upon the 
market are Bowker's Disparene and Swift's Arsenate 
of Lead. 

London purple generally contains nearly the same 
percentage of arsenic as Paris green ; but the arsenic 



INSECTICIDES 



13 



is often in a more soluble form, and consequently 
London purple is more likely to injure foliage than 
Paris green, unless lime is added. It is a finer 
powder than the green, and remains in suspension in 
water longer. It is also cheaper. Before using, the 
soluble arsenic should be made insoluble by the addi- 
tion of lime water. One of the best ways to do this is 
to add three-fourths of a pound of lime to a pound of 
London purple, and thoroughly mix them in a gallon 
of hot water, allowing the mixture to stand two hours 
and keeping it hot during this time if it can be con- 
veniently done. In this way the soluble arsenic will 
be rendered insoluble, and the London purple may be 
used at the rate of 4 or 5 ounces to a barrel of water. 
Or the London purple may be added to the water as 
usual, and about 2 gallons of fresh milk of lime (made 
by slaking lime in water) strained into the barrel. 
If allowed to stand an hour, all the soluble arsenic is 
more likely to be rendered insoluble than if used at 
once. After London purple has been thus treated 
w4th lime it can safely be applied to tender foliage at 
a strength of 4 ounces to 50 gallons of water. Both 
London purple and Paris green may be added to the 
Bordeaux mixture (4 ounces poison to 50 gallons mix- 
ture), as described more fully elsewhere, and then 
the treatment with lime is not necessary. 

Scheele's Green is another arsenical insecticide 
recently placed on the market. According to a bulle- 
tin of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
it ''is similar to Paris green in color, and differs from 
it only in lacking acetic acid ; in other words, it is a 
simple arsenite of copper. It is a much finer powder 
than Paris green, and therefore more easily kept in 
suspension, and has the additional advantage of cost- 
ing only about half as much per pound. When prop- 
erly w^ashed and prepared by the manufacturers it is 



14 



SPRAYING CROPS 



less harmful to the foliage even than Paris green, is 
quicker in effect, and should supplant the latter as an 
insecticide. It is used in the same way and at about 
the same strength as Paris green." 

Hellebore is a vegetable poison, and kills both by 
contact and by being eaten. It may be applied in 
water, i ounce to 3 gallons, or i pound to a barrel. 
It is especially excellent in destroying the imported 
currant worm. 

Pyrethruuu or Insect Powder, is made from the 
powdered flowers of plants of the genus Pyrethrum. 
The greatest obstacle to the use of Pyrethrum has 
been the difficulty in obtaining the pure, fresh article. 
After long exposure to the air it loses much of its 
insecticidal value. It is used mainly as a dry powder 
or in water (i ounce to 3 gallons) ; but may also be 
used in the form of a tea, or a decoction, a fume, or 
an alcoholic extract diluted. 

Arseuite of Lime — Persons having a large amount 
of spraying to do often use this in place of Paris 
green, as it is much cheaper. It is made by boiling 
for 15 minutes or more 

White arsenic 2 pounds 

Salsoda 8 pounds 

Water 2 gallons 

After the arsenic is dissolved this makes a stock 
solution which may be used at the rate of i pint to a 
barrel of water, adding also 2 pounds of freshly slaked 
lime. The chief objection to this is in the danger of 
having white arsenic around the premises. It looks 
so much like flour, baking powder and other domestic 
powders that it is dangerous to the family. 

Kerosene — Pure kerosene has lately come into 
use as an insecticide for scale insects, especially the 
San Jose scale. It is to be applied only to dormant 



INSECTICIDES 



15 



trees in winter, and must be used with care and dis- 
cretion in order not to kill the trees. It is to be 
sprayed on until the bark is thoroughly moistened, 
but spraying should cease before the kerosene begins 
to run down the branches. The Vermorel nozzle with 
one-twentieth-inch aperture is recommended for this 
work. Apparently there is especial danger of injury 
to the trees in the case of the peach. 

Kerowater Sprays — During the last few years 
considerable progress has been made in the making 
of apparatus for applying kerosene in mechanical 
mixture with water. Essentially this consists in 
having the kerosene in one receptacle and the water 
in the other and bringing the two together at the 
nozzle in such a way that the two will combine in 
the spray applied. In much of the apparatus now 
upon the market, the two liquids enter the same hose 
at the pump so that there is an opportunity for more 
or less separation before the nozzle is reached, a fact 
which leads to inequality in the percentages of ker- 
osene in the spray at different times. The longer and 
larger the hose the greater the danger. Consequently 
the small bucket and knapsack kerosene and water 
machines are much more likely to give satisfaction 
than the large barrel machines. 

As a matter of fact the kerosene and the water 
should reach the nozzle through separate lines of 
hose so that there will be no opportunity for such 
inequalities as the present system involves. In some 
of the best types of barrel sprayers this principle is 
now adopted. 

There is no question that these kerowater sprays 
have many advantages, and are very useful in de- 
stroying many sorts of insects. 

Kerosene Emulsion — According to the Riley- 
Hubbard formula in general use this is prepared by 



i6 



SPRAYING CROPS 



adding 2 gallons of kerosene to i gallon of a solution 
made by dissolving j/^ pound of hard soap in i 
gallon of boiling water, and churning the mixture by 
forcing it back into the same vessel through a force 
pump with a rather small nozzle opening throwing a 
straight stream, until the whole forms a creamy mass, 
which will thicken into a jelly-like substance on cool- 
ing. The soap solution should be hot when the 
kerosene is added, but of course must not be near a 
fire. The emulsion thus made is to be diluted before 
using, with nine or ten parts of water to one part of 
emulsion. The amount of dilution varies with differ- 
ent insects. Soft water or rain water should be used 
in diluting. If this cannot be obtained add a little 
lye or bicarbonate of soda. For use against scale 
insects potash whale oil soap is recommended. 

Crude Petroleum — This substance has been used 
to a considerable extent for winter treatment for 
the San Jose scale. It is sprayed upon the bark as 
recommended for pure kerosene and seems to remain 
on longer in effective condition. 

Lime, Salt and Svdphur Wash — This has lately 
become the most generally recommended insecticide 
for use against the San Jose scale. According to 
Professor J. B. Smith the formula generally used in 
New Jersey is : 

Stone lime 50 pounds 

Flowers of sulphur 50 pounds 

Stock salt 50 pounds 

Water 150 gallons 

"Slake the lime with hot water, enough to do it 
thoroughly, add the sulphur, stir well, and boil for 
at least an hour, adding water as necessary. Then 
add the salt, boil at least fifteen minutes more, and 
dilute to make the 150 gallons. In boiling use no 



INSECTICIDES 



17 



more water than necessary to make a fluid mass. 
Strain tlirough a gunny sack and apply hot. 

*'The main point to be insisted on is that the 
mixture be thoroughly boiled, so as to obtain the 
complete combination of the sulphur and lime. Hog- 
scalders were generally used last winter, but in at 
least one case a small steam boiler proved economical 
and satisfactory. Where large quantities of the mix- 
ture are to be prepared, the steam boilers will prob- 
ably prove most convenient.'' 

For Georgia, Mr W. M. Scott, state entomologist, 
gives the following directions : 

^'This wash may be prepared by combining lime, 
salt and sulphur in several different proportions, but 
the following appears to be the generally accepted 
formula : 

Quicklime 30 pounds 

Salt 15 pounds 

Flowers of sulphur 20 pounds 

Water to make 60 gallons. 

"Slake half the lime carefully and place it in a 
large kettle with 25 gallons of water; grind the 
sulphur up with a little water, breaking the lumps 
as fine as possible by passing through a sieve and 
add to the lime; boil. As it boils the liquid will 
gradually become thinner and thinner, the lime and 
sulphur dissolving simultaneously to form a deep 
orange-red solution. When the sulphur has appar- 
ently all entered into solution, which may take two 
hours or more, slake the remainder of the lime, add 
to it the salt, and pour the two into the lime and 
sulphur solution. Boil the whole for from half an hour 
to an hour longer, strain, and dilute with warm 
water to 60 gallons. Do not let it become thoroughly 
cold, but spray while yet warm. 



i8 



SPRAYING CROPS 



"The principal care in making up this wash is 
to make sure that the sulphur is thoroughly dissolved. 
Flowers of sulphur is apt to be more or less lumpy, 
and these lumps are very difficult of solution. The 
more thoroughly the sulphur is ground up with water 
before being boiled with the lime, the less time it 
will take in boiling. 

''An iron kettle must be used if the boiling is done 
directly over a fire. A better and cheaper way, when- 
ever a head of steam is available, is to place the sul- 
phur, lime and salt together in a barrel half full of 
water, conduct the steam through a pipe to the bottom, 
of the barrel and boil for two or three hours, with 
occasional stirring, to make sure that nothing is set- 
tling. If a boiler is convenient, a pipe might be so 
arranged as to conduct steam to a number of barrels 
at once.'' 

Resin Soap — This substance is used for scale 
insects, and to add to Bordeaux mixture for asparagus 
rust. The soap is made by dissolving 7 pounds sal- 
soda (washing soda) in 5 gallons of boiling water. 
Then add 10 pounds resin and boil until the resin is 
dissolved. This will require half an hour or more. 
The result will be a yellow soap in the lower part of 
the vessel with a brownish liquid above. The latter 
is to be poured ofif, and the soap diluted as needed. 

Fish-oil Soap — Professor J. B. Smith and others 
report excellent results in the use of this substance 
against plant-lice and similar insects. The soap is on 
the market at about 12 cents a pound, but, according 
to Professor Smith, it can be made much more cheaply 
by the following formula : 



Hirsh's crystal potash lye i pound 

Fish oil , 3 pints 

Soft water 3 gallons 



INSECTICIDES 



19 



Dissolve the lye in the water, heat to boiling, and 
then add the oil. It should be boiled about two 
hours, and when done water can be added to make up 
for the loss by evaporation. For use as an insecticide 
it is made into a dilute suds by dissolving i pound of 
soap in 8 gallons of water. It is less liable to injure 
foliage than kerosene emulsion. 

Lime Spray is made by slaking a half -peck or a 
peck of fresh lime in water, and pouring into a barrel 
nearly full of water, straining the lumps out as it 
enters the barrel. By means of this and the spray 
pump, trees and vines may be literally whitewashed. 
It is useful in mechanically coating plants so that 
flea-beetles, and perhaps other insects, will not 
molest them. 

Tobacco Decoction — This is made by boiling 
refuse tobacco stems or dust in water, or pouring 
boiling water over them. This gives a concentrated 
liquid, which is to be diluted with cold water, until 
there are two gallons of water for each pound of 
tobacco used. It is a good remedy for plant-lice. 
A stronger formula, recommended by Professor M. V. 
Slingerland, is to steep 5 pounds of tobacco stems in 
3 gallons of water for 3 hours ; then strain and dilute 
with enough water to make 7 gallons, when the 
decoction is ready to use. 

Whale-oil S oap— Dissolve in water at the rate of 
2 ounces soap to i gallon water. This is good to 
destroy plant-lice, rose slugs, etc. Good's potash soap 
No 3 seems to be the best whale-oil soap for insec- 
ticidal purposes. 

FUNGICIDES USED IN SPRAYING 

The principal fungicides used in spraying are 
certain salts of copper, especially the sulphate of 
copper and the carbonate of copper. These substances 



20 



SPRAYING CROPS 



were first experimented with on a large scale in 
France, and gave such satisfactory resuhs that they 
were adopted in a practical way by many vineyardists. 
In America they have been tised for this purpose only 
about twenty years : yet, thanks to numerotis inves- 
tigations and experiments, their efficiency is well 
attested, and they are in practical use over a large 
territory. Their principal combinations are indicated 
below : 

Bordeaux Mixture — This ftmgicide originated in 
France, and has become one the leading combina- 
tions of copper salts. Since its introduction into 
America there has been a constant tendency to dilute 
the mixttire more and more. The restilts from the 
diluted mixtures have been apparently as good as from 
those of full strength, and of course the cost has been 
proportionately lessened. The different formulas are 
indicated below : 

Original or 22-GaUon Formula — Dissolve 6 
potnids copper stilphate in i gallon hot water in an 
eanhen or wooden vessel. In another vessel slake 3 
pounds fresli lime in i gallon water. Strain the 
latter, and add to 20 gallons water. Xow pour in the 
dissolved copper sulphate and mix thoroughly. Keep 
the mixture stirred while using. This strong mixture 
is now seldom tised. 

Fifty-Gallon Formula — In 1889, while at the Ohio 
Experiment Station. I experimented with potato blight 
by diluting this mixtiu'e a little more than half, using 
6 potmds copper sulphate and 4 potuids lime to 50 
gallons water, instead of 22 gallons. This was ap- 
plied to a number of plants besides potatoes, and 
apparently gaA'e as good results as tuidiltited mix- 
tures. The same formtila was also sticcessfully used 
in 1890, and has been so generally adopted since, that 
it is now the standard formula. 



FUNGICIDES 



21 



The most complete practical directions for mak- 
ing the Bordeaux mixture are those published by 
Professor B. T. Galloway, United States Department 
of Agriculture, in Farmers' Bulletin No 38, which I 
quote at length : 

'Tt has been found," writes Mr Galloway, ''that 
the method of combining the ingredients has an 
important bearing on both the chemical composition 
and physical structure of the mixture. For example, 
if the copper sulphate is dissolved in a small quantity 
of water and the lime milk diluted to a limited extent 
only, there results, when these materials are brought 
together, a thick mixture, having strikingly different 
characters from one made by pouring together weak 
solutions of lime and copper sulphate. It is true, 
furthermore, that if the copper sulphate solution and 
lime milk are poured together while the latter or both 
are warm, different effects are obtained than if 
both solutions are cool at the moment of mixing. 
Where the mixture has been properly made there 
is scarcely any settling after an hour, while the 
improperly made mixture has settled more than half. 

''Briefly, the best results have been obtained from 
the use of the Bordeaux mixture made in accordance 
with the following directions : In a barrel or other 
suitable vessel place 25 gallons of water. Weigh out 
6 pounds of copper sulphate, then tie the same in a 
piece of coarse gunny sack and suspend it just beneath 
the surface of the water. By tying the bag to a stick 
laid across the top of the barrel no further attention 
will be required. In another vessel slake 4 pounds 
of lime, using care in order to obtain a smooth paste, 
free from grit and small lumps. To accomplish this 
it is best to place the lime in an ordinary water pail 
and add only a small quantity of water at first, say 
a quart or a quart and a half. When the lime begins 



22 



SPRAYING CROPS 



to crack and crumble and the water to disappear add 
another quart or more, exercising care that the hme 
at no time gets too dry. Toward the last considerable 
water will be required, but if added carefully and 
slowly a perfectly smooth paste will be obtained, pro- 
vided, of course, the lime is of good quality. \Mien 
the lime is slaked add sufficient water to the paste 




Improperly and Properly Hade Bordeaux xlixture 

After standing one hour. The properly made mixture has just begun to settle 

to bring the whole up to 25 gallons. \Mien the copper 
sulphate is entirely dissolved and the lime is cool, pour 
the lime milk and copper sulphate solution slowh 
together into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The milk 
of lime should be thoroughly stirred before pouring. 
The method described insures good mixing, but to 
complete this work the barrel of liquid should receive 
a final stirring, for at least three minutes, with a broad 
wooden paddle. The copper sulphate solution should 



FUNGICIDES 



^3 



be poured into the lime, rather than the Hme into the 
copper sulphate solution. 

''It is now necessary to determine whether the 
mixture is perfect — that is, if it will be safe to apply 
it to tender foliage. To accomplish this, two simple 
tests may be used. First insert the blade of a pen- 
knife in the mixture, allowing it to remain there for 
at least one minute. If metallic copper forms on the 
blade, or, in other words, if the polished surface of 




Making Bordeaux Mixture 

Pouring together the lime milk and copper sulphate solution 



the steel assumes the color of copper plate, the mix- 
ture is unsafe and more lime must be added. If, on 
the other hand, the blade of the knife remains 
unchanged, it is safe to conclude that the mixture is 
as perfect as it can be made. As an additional test, 
however, some of the mixture may be poured into 
an old plate or saucer, and while held between the 
eyes and the light the breath should be gently blown 
upon the liquid for at least half a minute. If the 



24 



SPRAYING CROPS 



mixture is properly made, a thin pellicle, looking like 
oil on water, will begin to form on the surface of 
the Hquid. If no pellicle forms, more milk of lime 
should be added. 

'The foregoing directions apply to cases where 
small quantities of the mixture are needed for more 
or less immediate use. If spraying is to be done 
upon a large scale, it will be found much more con- 
venient and economical in every way to prepare what 
are known as stock solutions of both the copper and 




Testing Bordeaux Mixture 

The saucer or plate method and the knife method 



lime. To prepare a stock solution of copper sulphate, 
procure a barrel holding 50 gallons. Weigh out 100 
pounds of copper sulphate, and after tying it in a 
sack suspend it so that it will hang as near the top 
of the barrel as possible. Fill the barrel with water, 
and in two or three days the copper will be dissolved. 
Now remove the sack and add enough water to bring 
the solution again up to the 50-gallon mark, previously 
made on the barrel. It will be understood, of course, 



FUNGICIDES 



25 



that this second adding of water is merely to replace 
the space previously occupied by the sack and the 
crystals of copper sulphate. Each gallon of the solu- 
tion thus made will contain 2 pounds of copper sul- 
phate, and, under all ordinary conditions of tempera- 
ture, there will be no material recrystallization, so that 
the stock preparation may be kept indefinitely. 

"Stock lime may be prepared in much the same 
way as the copper sulphate solution. Procure a barrel 
holding 50 gallons, making a mark to indicate the 50- 
gallon point. Weigh out 100 pounds of fresh lime, 
place it in the barrel and slake it. When slaked, add 
sufficient water to bring the whole mass up to 50 gal- 
lons. Each gallon of this preparation contains, after 
thorough stirring, 2 poimds of lime. 

"When it is desired to make Bordeaux mixture 
of the 50-gallon formula it is only necessary to meas- 
ure out 3 gallons of the stock copper solution, and, after 
thorough stirring, 2 gallons of the stock lime ; dilute 
each to 25 gallons, mix, stir, and test as already de- 
scribed. One test will be sufficient in this case. In 
other words, it will not be necessary to test each lot of 
Bordeaux mixture made from the stock preparations, 
provided the first lot is perfect and no change is made 
in the quantities of the materials used. Special care 
should be taken to see that the lime milk is stirred 
thoroughly each time before applying. As a final pre- 
caution it will be well to keep both the stock copper 
sulphate and the stock lime tightly covered." Care 
should be taken that there is always some excess 
of lime. 

A special advantage of the Bordeaux mixture is, 
that arsenicals may be added to it, making a combined 
insecticide and fungicide. Apparently arsenate of 
lead is the most satisfactory for this purpose. Added 
to Bordeaux mixture at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 



26 



SPRAYING CROPS 



g-allons it makes very effective insecticide and renders 
the mixture more adhesive. 

Care should be taken not to use the Bordeaux 
mixture on fruit crops too late in the season. Traces 
of it remain for some tmie, notwithstanding nimierous 
rains, and are liable to cause unnecessary suspicions 
when on marketed fruit. When a fruit crop requires 
treatment within a month of the time of picking, it is 
better to substitute some fungicide like carbonate of 
copper, but it is doubtful if even these combinations 
should be applied so near the time of the fruit harvest. 
\\^ith nearly, if not quite all our fruit diseases, the 
treatment should begin early and not continue 
too late. 

The experience of orchardists indicates that there 
is danger in using Bordeaux mixture in which there 
is not an excess of lime, as it causes a russeting of 
apples somewhat similar to that caused by late frosts 
in spring. 

It somietimes happens that traces of Bordeaux 
mixture remain upon the fruit, even when a consid- 
erable interval elapses between the last application 
and the ripening of the fruit. Such traces may be 
easily removed by dipping in a solution made by 
adding 2 gallons cider vinegar to 10 gallons water. 
A good way is to have three tubs, one holding the 
vinegar mixture and the other two pure water. Then 
place the grapes or other fruit in wire baskets holding 
15 to 20 pounds, dip them in the vinegar tub for 
five minutes and then rinse in the two tubs of clear 
water, afterwards spreading the fruit on frames or 
shelves, something like those used in the fruit evap- 
orators. Grapes can be treated in this way on a 
large scale for six cents a hundred pounds. 

Carbonate of Copper — This is commonly used in 
the form of an ammoniacal solution made bv dis- 



FUNGICIDES 



27 



solving 5 ounces carbonate of copper in 3 pints of 
ammonia and then adding to a barrel (50 gal- 
lons) of water. To prevent loss from evaporation of 
ammonia, the dissolved carbonate should be added to 
the water immediately before spraying. It is a simple 
fungicide, easy to make and apply, and as it is a 
clear solution, there is no trouble w^th its clogging 
nozzles. It has been successfully used to prevent apple 
scab and various mildews. 

A combination of carbonate of copper and car- 
bonate of ammonia recommended by Professor F. D. 
Chester as superior to the above, is made as follows : 
''Mix together 3 ounces carbonate of copper and i 
pound pulverized carbonate of ammonia. Dissolve this 
mixture in 2 quarts hot water and add to 50 gallons 
water." A barrel of this mixture costs 12 cents. 

Professor Chester also reports good results from 
copper carbonate prepared as follows : "Thoroughly 
mix in half a pail of w^ater, i pound of carbonate of 
copper, to w^hich is added 3 ounces of common glue 
dissolved in hot water, then dilute to 25 gallons." It 
would probably be better to dilute to 50 gallons. 

Sulphate of Copper — Besides its use in combina- 
tion with other substances, copper sulphate is often 
applied to dormant vines and trees early in spring tc 
destroy the winter spores of fungi. For this purpose 
it is used in a simple solution made by dissolving 2 
pounds copper sulphate in 50 gallons water. 

Extremely dilute solutions — one part of copper 
sulphate to 1000 parts of water — have been used to 
advantage in greenhouses to check such diseases as 
carnation rust. 

Potassium Sulphide — Dissolve ounce of potas- 
sium sulphide (liver of sulphur) in i gallon of hot 
w^ater. When cold apply in a spray. Used to prevent 
gooseberry mildew and similar diseases. 



28 



SPRAYIXG CROPS 



Soda Hyposulphite — Dissolve ^2 ounce or i ounce 
soda hyposulphite in 10 callous water. This is espe- 
cially recommended for go^'Scberry mildew. 

Lyc Solution — Professor \Mlliam B. Alwood 
recommends a solution of 8 cans of concentrated lye 
in 50 gallons water for spraying on trees and vines 
early in spring, before the buds are started, to kill 
fungus spores. If applied after buds are started 
much damage might result. 

F oriiialdehyde-GJyeeriue Mixture — Professor F. 
D. Chester has lately used with success the follow- 
ing combination in treating pear tree canker : 
Formaldehyde (40 per cent), i pint: glycerine, 2 
pints: water, 17 pints. 

Caution — ]\Iost of the copper compounds cor- 
rode tin and iron. Consequently, in preparing them 
for use, earthen, wooden or brass vessels should be 
employed : and in applying them the parts of the pump 
which come in contact with the liquid should be made 
of brass. 

COMBIXATIOXS OF IXSECTICIDES AXD FUXGICIDES 

Soon after fungicides came into prominence in 
this country, the writer called attention^ to the advan- 
tages of so combining them with insecticides that both 
may be applied at the same time and in the same 
mixture. Before then, entomologists had worked out 
remedies for insects, and botanists remedies for plant 
diseases, but very little had been done in so combining 
the treatment that the practical man might, so to 
speak, "kill two birds with one stone." In the articltr 
referred to I said : ''The necessity of treatment for 
both classes of injuries is at once apparent to all who 
have experienced the serious losses due to these agents. 
Obviously, it is of little use to save a plum crop from 

I Agricultural Science. iSSg. 



COMBINING SPRAYING MIXTURES 



29 



the curculio, if it is to be destroyed by the fung-otis 
disease known as fruit rot; to save raspberries from 
the slug if they are to be ruined by anthracnose; to 
save tiie grape buds from the flea beetle if the berries 
are to be destroyed by black rot; or to save a pear 
crop from the ravages of the codling moth and curculio 
if it is to be distorted and disfigured by the scab ; or, 
to take an example which will strike home to a large 
proportion of American farmers, it is scarcely worth 
while to save the potatoes from the Colorado beetle if 
they are to be ruined by more serious enemies — the 
potato blights. While the necessity for preventing, so 
far as possible, injuries of both these classes of organ- 
isms is obvious, it is almost equally evident that there 
will be a great loss of time and labor if each is treated 
separately. For instance, the farmer who sprays his 
potatoes with the arsenites two or three times for the 
beetles, and then goes over them again vv^ith solutions 
of copper sulphate for the blight, would have accom- 
plished the same end in half the time by mixing the 
copper sulphate and London purple or Paris green in 
one solution and applying them together. The same 
is true of the treatment of apples, pears, plums, and, 
in fact, of a large proportion of the crops liable to 
injury by both insects and fungi.'' 

Since the above was written a great many exper- 
iments along the lines indicated have been made, and 
we now have a number of satisfactory combinations. 
Chief among these are the following: 

Bordeaux Mixture and Arsenites — Add 4 ounces 
Paris green to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. 
This is one of the very best combined insecticides and 
fungicides. It may be used safely and efifectively upon 
a great variety of crops — such as potatoes for Colorado 
beetles and blight, apples and pears for insects and 
scab, and plums for curculio and leaf or fruit diseases. 



30 



SPRAYING CROPS 



The remarks on page 26 concerning late applications 
of the Bordeaux mixture are equally applicable to 
this combination. 

As already stated on page 25, the arsenate of 
lead seems even better than Paris green. Add to 
Bordeaux mixture at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons. 

Arsenites and Copper Carbonate — The Ohio 
Experiment Station recommends the following com- 
bination : Paris green 2 ounces, carbonate of copper 
2 ounces, dissolve in 3 pints of ammonia, add ^ 
pound lime and i barrel of water. It is advised that 
this be substituted for the arsenite and Bordeaux com- 
bination for the later sprayings of apples, pears, 
plums, etc, so as to avoid the lime coating on the fruit. 

Care must be taken in combining the arsenites 
with other fungicide solutions, as one is liable thus 
to produce a compound very injurious to foliage. 
Paris green or London purple added to simple solu- 
tions of copper sulphate, or to ammonia compounds 
without lime, injures foliage vastly more than in 
simple water mixture. 

COST OF SPRAYING MATERIALS 

The average retail and wholesale prices "^of the 
various materials used in the spraying mixtures above 
described are approximately indicated in the following 
table : 





WHOLESALE 

Per lb 


RETAIL 

Per lb 


A^mmonia (22 degrees Baume) 


. . . , $0 07 


$0 25 


Carbonate of copper (precipitated) 


. • . . 35 


60 




. . . . 12 


30 


London purple 


. . . . 06-07 


10-15 


Paris green 


. ... 15 


25 


Pvrethrum 


. . . . 22-40 


40-70 


Soda hyposulphite 


06 


15 


Salsoda 


. ... 01^ 


05 




05-07 


10-15 


White hellebore . . . 


12 


25 


Whale-oil soap 


08-10 


15-20 



HARMLESS TO FRUIT 



31 



PREJUDICE AGAINST SPRAYING 

It is quite natural that when most people first 
learn that the fruit they eat has at some time in its 
history been sprayed with poison they should object on 
hygienic grounds. Both in Europe and America the 
development of the practice of spraying has been 
accompanied by occasional scares, the last one on this 
side of the water occurring in September, 1881, when 
the people of New York, Boston and other eastern 
cities were agitated by an exaggerated "grape scare," 
due to the finding of particles of Bordeaux mixture on 
some of the grapes in the New York market. But 
w^hen the spraying, either with the insecticides or 
fungicides now commonly in use, is done with proper 
reference to the time, methods, and conditions of treat- 
ment, there is no danger to the consumer. Both prac- 
tical experience and chemical tests have demonstrated 
that apples sprayed early in the season with Paris 
green or London purple retain none of the poison at 
the time of ripening. The most recent demonstration 
of this appears in the last report of the experimental 
farms of Canada. A peck of Rhode Island Greening 
apples that had been sprayed tw^ice with Paris green 
(i pound to 200 gallons of water) were care- 
fully gathered, without rubbing, and tested for 
arsenic. ''The process to w^hich they were submitted 
is one that affords extremely accurate results, and is 
considered the most delicate of all for the detection of 
arsenic. It is capable of revealing the presence of one- 
fifty-thousandth part of a grain of arsenic. If twenty- 
three thousand bushels of apples contained two and a 
half grains of arsenic, the minimum fatal dose for an 
adult, the poison could have been detected by this 
method." Notwithstanding the most careful analysis 
no traces of poison were found ; and in conclusion, the 



32 



SPRAYING CROPS 



chemist states: ''I am of the opinion that further 
experiments of this nature would only serve to corrob- 
orate this negative result, and to prove that there are 
no grounds on which to base a suspicion that our 
sprayed apples are poisonous. The insoluble character 
of this poison precluding its assimilation by the apple, 
if such were possible, the infinitesimal part of Paris 
green that can remain on the apple, the frequent rains 
subsequent to the spraying, — all go to substantiate 
the argument that there is not the slightest danger of 
poisoning in using sprayed apples." 

There is abundant evidence of a similar nature 
concerning the use of copper salts on grapes. In France, 
where a large proportion of the grape crop is converted 
into w^ne, elaborate investigations have shown that 
practically none of the copper salts are present in wine 
from sprayed vineyards. Professor B. Fallot, of the 
School of Agriculture of ^^lontpellier, in recording the 
results of one of these investigations, says : ^'The 
figures obtained have proved once more that wines, 
after the grapes have received numerous treatments 
with large quantities of salts of copper, contain 
scarcely a trace of this substance, and are entirely 
harmless.'' 

SPRAYING APPARATUS 

The chief requisites of a good spraying machine 
are that it be durable, easily worked, not too expensive 
for the purpose desired, that it throw a fine spray and 
have a good-sized cylinder, and that the reservoir * 
holding the liquid be large enough for the purpose 
intended. For fungicides the parts touching the liquid 
should be made of brass. Although twenty years ago 
there was scarcely an implement for this purpose upon 
the market, there are scores of them to-day, and 
several manufacturers handle them exclusively. They 



APPARATUS 



33 



may be had in all shapes, styles, and sizes, from the 
small hand-spray pump to be used with a bucket, and 
costing a dollar or two, up to the large power 
machines costing fifty times as much. 

There are four general styles of spraying 
machines upon the market. First, we have the small 
bucket pumps that serve a useful purpose where 
only a comparatively small amount of spraying 




Bucket Pump 



is to be done ; then come the knapsack sprayers, one of 
which is illustrated on page 34, which are especially 
useful in spraying small vineyards and crops where a 
horse cannot well be driven ; third, we have what may 
be called the barrel class of sprayers, being good-sized 
pumps to be attached to barrels mounted in various 
ways ; and, finally, there are the large machines work- 
ing either by engine or horsepower. For the general 
purposes of the average farmer or fruit-grower the 
barrel machines are much the most useful. They are 
also of moderate cost, ranging from $8 to $16. They 



34 



SPRAYING CROPS 



can be used in spraying all sorts of crops, and may 
well be mounted on separate wheels, as in the Chester 
sprayer shown herewith, or the barrel may be placed 
in a wagon wdien in use, 

A cheap and efficient homemade spraying cart, 
designed by Professor F. D. Chester, is illustrated 
on page 35. According to Professor Chester : "It can 
be made by any wheelwright, and consists of a truck 
mounted upon a pair of carriage wdieels. Upon this 




The Knapsack Sprayer 

(After Bailey) 



is placed a barrel holding 50 gallons, held in place 
by a strap, which surrounds the same and which is 
tied in front at either trace. The barrel has a tight- 
fitting cover, firmly strapped in place ; upon this is 
seated the pump. In the large cover is an opening, 
covered by a lid for filling. Any good force-pump 
can be used upon the barrel, but it is important that 
it should be good, and the cheapest are in the long 
run the dearest. The cheaper iron pumps are excel- 
lent at first, but will soon corrode where caustic 



APPARATUS 



35 



fungicides are used, even with the best of care. All 
metallic parts that have contact with the fungicides 
should be of brass. The pump should have a double 
discharge, one for the spray and another to return a 
portion of the fluid back to the barrel to keep the 
same agitated." The pump should have a hose 
attached,. 15 to 20 feet long, with a good spray-nozzle 
at the end. 




A Handy Outfit 

(After Chester) 



For work in the nursery as well as many other 
places an excellent spraying outfit ''can be made by 
firmly fastening a barrel, end up, on a sled made of 
heavy durable timber. ]\iOunt upon the barrel a good 
strong, double-acting force-pump provided with two- 
hose attachments, to each end of which fasten 25 feet 
of ^-inch hose. To the end of each hose attach a 
Vermorel nozzle ; then with the necessary gearing for 
hitching the horse, the outfit is complete. For oper- 
ating the machine two men and a horse are required. 
One man does the pumping and attends to the horse, 



36 



SPRAYING CROPS 



while the other walks behind and directs the spray 
over two rows at a time."^ 

A good outfit for use in the vineyard, recom- 
mended by Professor Bailey, is illustrated below. 
A barrel with pump is mounted crosswise on the 
wagon, "and the driver rides and pumps. Another 
man walks behind and throws the spray up under the 
vines and on to all the clusters by means of a Ver- 




A Vineyard Outfit 

(After Bailey) 



morel nozzle attached to a half-inch gas pipe. This 
gas pipe has somewhat the form of a slim letter S, 
the nozzle being attached to one terminal crook, the 
other crook resting over the man's left arm. The 
hose is attached near the shoulder. The pipe is so 
long that the operator is not obliged to stoop, and he 
can direct the spray in any direction, while the 
apparatus hangs easily upon the arm. A globe valve 

1 Galloway, 



APPARATUS 



37 



just below the arm enables the operator to shut off 
the stream at will." 

A handy, homemade, wheelbarrow spraying out- 
fit, gotten up by Professor Bailey, is useful in garden 
work, especially in spraying small bushes. A Cyclone, 
\^ern:orel, or Bordeaux nozzle is used to underspray 
the foliage. 




An Orchard Outfit 

(From Delaware Experimeot Station) 



A plan for a desirable spraying outfit suggested 
by the experience of Delaware orchardists is shown 
above. After much experience Mr T. S. Derby 
of Woodside, Delaware, says that the ''essentials 
for economy in time and labor, and for efficiency in 



38 



SPRAYING CROPS 



orchard spraying, are, first, an elevated platform at 
least 12 feet from the ground, so that the spraying 
is largely down hill ; second, two center uprights to 
support the platform, instead of four corner uprights, 
in order to allow the branches to sweep m under the 
platform, without breaking them or tearing off the fruit 
spurs ; third, a low center of gravity, brought about by 
setting the bottom of the wagon directly on the axles ; 




Pole Attachment The Bordeaux Nozzle 



fourth, a form of extension or goose-neck reach to 
allow^ the front wheels to turn short ; fifth, wheels 
with at least 4-inch tires, and of ordinary height ; sixth, 
a tank to hold 200 gallons." 

Nosj^lcs — The nozzle forms an important part of 
the spraying outfit. There are many varieties of these 




Spray Pipe Extension 



upon the market ; some of them are better adapted to 
certain kinds of work than others, so that it pays to 
have several forms on hand where there is a variety 
of spra3dng to be done. Som.e of the best forms are 
the Vermorel, Bordeaux, Climax, Cyclone, Graduating 
Spray, Deming, Eureka, and ]McGowan. For spray- 
ing large trees, some method of raising the nozzle 
nearly to the top is generally necessary. Formerly 
the commonest way of doing this was to fasten^' the 



APrARATUS 



39 



nozzle and hose to a long- pole, but a better way is to 
use a half-inch gas pipe or a brass tube, 12 or 14 feet 
long, attaching the hose at one end and the nozzle 
at the other, or one of the bamboo extensions man- 
ufactured by some spraying firms. One can also get 
a handy arrangement for underspraying lo\v bushes, 
one form of which is shown in tlie illustration 
below. 

^Igitators for Spraying Mixtures — With most 
poisons held in suspension in water some form of- 
agitator is needed to keep the material from settling 
to the bottom. "The agitators now in use," writes ^Ir 
A. V. Stubenrauch, "are far from perfect or satis- 




Underspraying Attachment 



factory, especially upon long flat tanks ; and unless 
they are continually watched unequal dissemination 
is likely to result. It is not to be forgotten that the 
liquid must be kept in motion throughout the tank. 
It is not alone necessary that a current be created 
near or around the opening into the pump. For this 
reason the whirling padale is perhaps the best, espe- 
cially if constructed with tilted blades, something like 
a screw propeller. It is a common practice nowadays 
to attach a paddle to the pump handle, so that the 
agitation may be maintained with every stroke of the 
operator. At first sight this seems to be a good plan, 
but it is, really, a mistake. If the paddle is a satis- 
factory one, the labor to keep it going will be far too 
great when added to that of pumping, and, in conse- 
quence, the one will interfere with the other. Besides, 



40 



SPRAYING CROPS 



a violent or quick motion is necessary for thorough 
agitation, while for pumping, a regular, steady stroke 
is the best. Therefore it is best not to attem.pt to 
couple the two motions. 

'Taris green, when used alone, is, perhaps, the 
only material which requires continual agitation; and 
that, in the opinion of the writer, is a serious objec- 
tion to its use, now that lighter-grained poisons have 
been found which settle much more slowly and conse- 
quently do not need continuous agitation. If we 




An Agitating Device 



omit Paris green from consideration, the liquids now 
in general use can be sufficiently stirred at short inter- 
vals — best w^hile the rig is moving from one tree to 
another. A separate agitating device is therefore 
preferable. The operator can do more with the few 
vigorous turns he is then able to give the agitator 
than is possible when the motion is dependent upon 
the pump handle. On large, flat tanks it is prac- 
tically impossible to keep up a sufficient pressure and 



APPARATUS 



41 



thorough agitation with the same stroke by hand. 
Two or three paddles are necessary, depending, of 
course, upon the length of the tank. These can be 
connected to a lever on top, a few vigorous strokes 
of wdiich, at intervals, w411 suffice to keep up a very 
thorough dissemination throughout the tank.'' 

Fasten Pump on Side of Barrel — It is much better 
to fasten the pump on the side of the barrel rather 
than on the end. In the latter case the pump handle 
is too high for a man to work to best advantage, and 
the motion of the wagon is much less likely to keep 
the liquid sufficiently agitated to prevent the settling 
of the poison. When the barrel is on the side it is 
much easier to keep the liquid agitated. 

Homemade Strainer — 'Tt is a general precaution 
that ought to be observed in all spraying operations," 
Vv^rites Mr W. M. Scott, ''that everything going into 
the spray pump barrel should pass through a strainer, 
and this is particularly necessary in the case of mix- 
tures containing lime. A very good homemade 
strainer may be made from a strong wooden bucket 
by boring an auger-hole in the bottom and inserting a 
six-inch piece of iron piping. A piece of wire gauze, 
preferably of brass or of copper, is then tacked over 
the top of the bucket ; a most commodious and effective 
strainer and funnel combined is thus obtained.'' 

Fineness of Spray — In most spraying operations 
the object is to distribute the poison as widely and 
evenly as possible over the surface of leaf and fruit. 
To accomplish this a fine spray is to be desired, for 
the finer the drops of water containing the particles 
of poison the more general will be the distribution of 
those particles. Consequently it is generally desirable 
to use nozzles which break the liquid up into a fine 
mist that will settle slowly on all parts of the tree or 
other plant, and when evaporated will leave the fine 



42 



SPRAYING CROPS 



particles of poison rather evenly distributed over all 
the exposed surfaces. 

There are exceptions, however, to this general 
statement. The one most notable is the case of spray- 
ing for the codling moth. Our present knowledge 
regarding this insect has already been summarized 
on page 2. As there stated, it seems especially 
desirable in fighting this pest to be sure to lodge some 
particles of poison inside the calyx of the young fruit. 
Apparently this is not so well accomplished by a mist- 
like spray as by one more coarse. Consequently it is 
generally recommended that in spraying for the cod- 
ling moth a spray be used that may be readily directed 
against the young fruit, forcing good-sized drops to 
lodge in the calyx so that on evaporation they will 
leave behind a sufficient residue of poison to insure 
the destruction of the young worms when they attempt 
to enter the fruit. 

Amount of Spray to Apply — In general, spraying 
is to be carried simply to a point where foliage and 
fruit are thoroughly moistened. As soon as leaves 
begin to drip it is time to stop, for if the application 
is continued the globules of liqtiid will run together, 
leaving on evaporation an excess of material on some 
parts and not enough on others. 

On this phase of the subject. Professor L. H. 
Bailey's advice is to ''spray thoroughly or not at all.'' 
And he adds: 'T should say that fully half the 
spraying which I have seen in western New York the 
last two years is a waste of time and material. 
Squirting a few quarts of w^ater at a tree as you hurry 
past it, is not spraying. A tree is thoroughly and 
honestly sprayed when it is zvct all over, on all the 
branches and on both sides of all the leaves. An 
insect or a fungus is not killed until the poison is 
placed where the pest is. Bugs do not search for 



COST OF SPRAYING 



43 



poison, in order that they may accommodate the 
orchardist by committing suicide. The one spot which 
is not sprayed may be the very place where a bud- 
worm is getting his dinner. On the other hand there 
are many fruit-growers who spray with the greatest 
thoroughness and accuracy, and they are the ones who 
in the long run will get the fruit.'' 

COST OF SPRAYING 

The cost of spraying depends, of course, upon 
various conditions, such as the crop sprayed, number 
of applications, apparatus, and mixture used, etc. It 
is usually estimated that full-grown orchard trees can 
be sprayed at a cost of 15 to 25 cents per tree per 
season, while nursery trees can be treated with 
Bordeaux mixture the first two seasons for about 25 
cents per thousand trees per season. 

Professor L. R. Jones, of the Vermont Station, 
has summarized several seasons' experience of the 
expense of spraying potatoes as follows : 'Tt is im- 
possible to give a general estimate that will suit all 
cases, as there are so many varying conditions. The 
amount of the mixture necessary to cover an acre will 
vary all the way from 50 to 300 gallons, according to 
the amount of foliage and the methods of application. 
Where we have covered an acre with 50 gallons in 
the middle of July, we have used 100 or 150 gallons 
per acre on the same piece in August. Again, in the 
latter part of August, we have sprayed a poor piece 
of half -blighted plants with 100 gallons per acre, and 
on the same day, on another piece where the ground 
was covered with a mass of luxuriant leaves, we have 
found it necessary to use fully 250 gallons per acre. 
Again, . . . the number of applications varies with 



44 



SPRAYING CROPS 



seasons. In 1891, a single application, made August 
20, was sufficient on a piece of late potatoes, while 
in 1892 three applications were necessary. In general, 
we should plan for making three applications on all 
except very early or very late potatoes. These three 
applications will require from 200 to 500 gallons of 
the mixture — on the average 400 gallons — used (in 
Vermont) as follows: 100 gallons per acre the last 
of July, 150 gallons per acre the middle of August, 150 
gallons per acre the last of August. This estimate is 
for a field planted about May 15 to May 20, and 
which will yield 200 bushels per acre. In our work it 
has taken (for three applications) about 2 gallons of 
mixture per bushel of yield. On early potatoes a 
fourth application may sometimes be necessary to keep 
ofif the early blight, the first application being made 
the first week in July ; in this case it will take about 
25^ gallons per bushel of yield. The mixture costs 
us about ^ cent per gallon, as follows : 

5 pounds blue vitriol at 7 cents $0 35 

5 pounds lime at ^2 cent.... 02^2 

Total cost of 50 gallons weak mixture $0 37^ 

''As most potato growers have to pay a little 
more than this for blue vitriol, one cent per gallon is 
about the average cost. The cost of applying also 
varies much, depending upon luxuriance of growth 
of plants, and upon apparatus used. In our work, 
with a barrel pump, three men and one horse have 
sprayed an acre vxll in two hours, when water was 
convenient, or at the rate of five acres per day, making 
the expense of labor about $1 per acre. Others with 
similar apparatus have said they could cover ten 
acres a day.'' 



PROFITS IN SPRAYING 



45 



The cost of spraying one acre of potatoes three 
times is summarized thus : 

MINIMUM MAXIMUM AVERAGE 

200 to 500 gallons at i cent each. . $2 00 $5 00 $4 00 
Labor i 50 3 75 3 00 

$3 50 $8 75 $7 00 

"When we consider our gain of an average of 113 
bushels per acre, worth last fall 80 cents per bushel, 
or $90.40, the profit is great even at the maximum 
expense." 

PROFITS IN SPRAYING 

The profit of spraying has been abundantly dem- 
onstrated in nearly all parts of the United States. 
The benefit derived is usually so marked that the man 
who tries the method becomes its enthusiastic advo- 
cate. In most cases there is not only a greatly in- 
creased crop, but the quality of the crop is so improved 
that it commands a higher price; and in the case of 
vines, or any plants living more than one year, the 
plant is kept in a vigorous condition that enables it to 
store up vitality for the following crop. In Ohio it 
has been demonstrated that spraying can easily ad- 
vance the value of the apple crop $20 per acre ; and 
in many states it has been shown that spraying is the 
salvation of the grape-grower. In Vermont it has 
been demonstrated that the potato crop can be 
increased more than 100 bushels per acre by spraying, 
while in New York it proves equally profitable to the 
nurseryman. In California, fruit-growers generally 
have adopted it with very gratifying results. Mr 
D. W. Coquillett records an instance where a pear- 
grower actually lost $2000 one season because he neg- 
lected to spray to prevent codling moth attack. At 
the Cornell Experiment Station an increase in cash 



46 



SPRxWIXG CROPS 



value of $1 a barrel on sprayed over unsprayed apples 
was obtained. There are many secondary profits in 
spraying besides the prevention of actual damage. 
The fruit becomes much larger in size ; consequently 
the yield is greatly increased, as is also the market 
value of the product. The same is true of potatoes. 
The keeping qualities are also very much improved — 
an item of great practical importance. And accord- 
ing to yir B. T. Galloway, the application of Bordeaux 
mixture has on many plants the effect of a tonic, 
irrespective of its fungicidal value. 

Spraying Is an Insurance — "There are always 
elements of risk in the growing of fruit," writes 
Professor L. H. Bailey in a famous bulletin on Spray- 
ing Orchards. ''The chief of these is frost, a difficulty 
which will never be completely under control. The 
second great element of risk is the injury wrought 
by insects and fungi and the greater part of this injury 
may be averted by the sprays. Xow, it is impossible 
to foretell by any considerable length of time, if any 
or all of the difficulties which are liable to harass 
the fruit-raiser will actually appear. One does not 
know if his buildings will burn, yet he insures them. 
We know that in four years out of five, some serious 
injury of insects or fungi may be confidently expected, 
and it is the part of wisdom to insure against it. Last 
year, 1894, was a season of remarkable invasion of 
apple-scab fungus, and those persons who sprayed 
their orchards thoroughly had phenomenal results. 
These experiences, aided by many publications upon 
the subject, so advertised the value of the sprays that 
much more spraying v.^as done in the state this year 
than ever before. But it has so happened, probably 
because of the dry spring, that comparativelv few 
invasions of enemies have occurred this year ; and the 
sprays have generally given small results. There has 



PROFITS IN SPRAYING 



47 



now arisen, therefore, considerable indifference or 
even opposition to spraying, and I expect to see much 
less of it next spring then I saw this spring. If, then, 
next year should be prolific in insects and diseases, 
there will be a few orchards here and there which 
will reward the forethought of the owner, and very 
many others which will be monuments of the results 
of neglect. It is a common fault with farmers that 
they draw their conclusions from the behavior or 
experiences of each recurring season, and do not con- 
sider the aggregate results of a series of years. Every 
operation should rest upon some fundamental reason 
or philosophy, rather than upon any single half- 
understood experience. 

''A fruit grower wrote me as follows last July : 
'You are always advising people to spray their 
orchards. All my neighbors spent much time and 
money last spring in spraying, but I did not spray 
and my fruit is just as good as theirs.' 

" 'I do not doubt your experience,' I replied ; 
'this has been a dry year and there has been little 
scab fungus. But you should have insured your 
orchard against probable loss by spraying it.' 

^'A few days later, the same correspondent wrote 
again : 'We have had a heavy rain, but it seemed to 
be poisonous to my potatoes and they are all black- 
ened and wilted. What shall I do?' 

"I hope that there was no feeling of scarcasm in 
my reply : 'I am sorry to hear of your loss, but it 
is now too late to avert the calamity. Your potatoes 
were not insured.' " 

Effect on Size of Fruit — There is a very general 
agreement that apple trees properly sprayed with a 
combined fungicide and insecticide yield larger fruit 
than those not sprayed. A striking instance of this 
as recorded by Lodeman, is illustrated in the picture 



SPRAYING CROPS 



below : "One hundred average unsprayed apples 
filled a half-bushel basket evenly full ; one hundred 
average sprayed apples filled a bushel basket evenh 
full Thus the bulk of the crop of ]^Iaiden Blush was 
practically doubled." 

Spraying has also been found to have a decidedly 
beneficial eft'ect on the color of the fruit. 

Tiliagc, Fcrtiii:::i)ig, Pni)ii)ig, Sprayi)ig — "Spray- 
ing has come into use so quickly," writes Professor 
L. H. Bailey, "that many people have come to look 




upon it as the means of salvation of our orchards. 
If spraying is to have the eftect of obscuring or 
depreciating the importance of good ctiltivation and 
fertilizing then it might better have never come into 
being. Trees must grow before they can bear, and 
this growth depends tipon food and proper conditions 
of soil, more than it does upon the accident of 
immunity from insects and fungi. There are four 
fimdamental operations upon which all permanent 
success in most kinds of orchard culture depend, and 
I think that their importance lies in the order in which 
I name them — tillage, fertilizing, prtuimg, spraying. 
Spraying is the last to be understood, but this fact 
should not obscure the importance of the other 
three." 



SPRAYING TREES IN BLOSSOM 



49 



SPRAYING AND THE WEATHER 

According to Professor J. B. Smith, spraying with 
the arsenites alone ''should not be done in the middle 
of a very hot day, nor, if it can be avoided, on a very 
hot sultry day. A hot sun on recently sprayed foliage 
will bring out all the caustic property in the poison 
applied, and will cause injury. After the moisture 
has evaporated, and only the thin film of dry poison 
remains, the sun does not act further on it. On a 
cool day spray at any hour. On a hot day spray during 
the early morning or late in the afternoon." These 
precautions are not necessary, however, when arsen- 
ate of lead is used. 

Frequent rains often occur during the spraying 
season, and fruit-growers are sometimes tempted to 
•defer operations till dry weather, but according to the 
experience of Mr W. J. Green, it is better, in the case 
of the Bordeaux mixture at least, ''to keep the work- 
going than to wait for dry weather. Of course it 
would be impracticable to spray during a rain-storm, 
nor would it be best to spray immediately before, but 
if the mixture has two or three hours in which to dry 
before a rain, it will adhere so closely that but little of 
it will be washed off. Much of it will remain for 
weeks, even during rainy weather.'' 

SPRAYING TREES IN BLOSSOM 

It is commonly believed that spraying trees in 
blossom, in case the arsenites are used, endangers the 
lives of the bees visiting the blossoms. In some 
regions laws to prevent this have been enacted. 
Spraying at such times seems unnecessar}', and intel- 
ligent . fruit-growers would not practice it. The bees 
are essential to the production of fruit, and there is 
no excuse for destro^nng them. 



50 



SPRAYING CROPS 



PRUNING TR5:ES 

To use the spraying machine to best advantage 
the orchard should be carefully and intelligently 
pruned. On this point Mr E. G. Lodeman writes:^ 
"The pruning and spraying of fruit trees are two 
subjects which are closely related. This is especially 
true in the case of the apple. Moisture is favorable to 
the development of the apple-scab fungus. When the 
tops of trees consist of a tangled mass of large and 
small branches, they are much longer in dying out 
than when they are open. Not only is a shelter given 
to fungi, but their growth is encouraged, and each tree 
becomes the distributing center of some disease. The 
mischief is also aggravated by the fact that it is as dif- 
ficult for any remedies to gain an entrance as it is for 
the light and air. It is impossible to spray such trees 
to advantage, even granting that the fruit borne by 
them would warrant the expense. The head of the 
tree should be open, so that all parts may be reached 
easily with the spray." The presence of these useless 
branches also requires the application of much more 
of the spraying compound than is otherwise necessary, 
thus involving a decided waste of time and material. 
By all means prune your orchards properly before you 
spray them. 

In planting new orchards, the trees should be set 
so far apart that when full-grown they may easily be 
sprayed. They should not be nearer together than 
40 feet each way. 

A SPRAYING CALENDAR 

Dr William C. Sturgis of the Connecticut Exper- 
iment Station has published the following provisional 
calendar of the spraying operations for the year. As 



^Cornell University Experiment Station, Bulletin 48. 



A SPRAYING CALENDAR 



51 



the author says, it is, of course, impossible to give 
accurate dates for various sprayings, on account of 
the difference in latitudes and seasons. But the dates 
are approximate, and the calendar has a decided value. 

January and February — But little can be done 
during these midwinter months in the way of spray- 
ing, though a great deal by way of preparation. If 
it has not already been done at the proper time, cut 
out and burn the black knot of plum and cherry now, 
and destroy all neighboring wild cherry trees which 
are knotty. In the latter part of February do all 
necessary trimming of vines and fruit trees, unless 
this has been done in the autumn. Where anthracnose 
has previously attacked grapevines, raspberries, or 
blackberries, prune severely, cut out every trace of 
diseased wood or cane and burn it. . . . In open 
winters, February is none too early to go over the 
orchard carefully and collect and burn all leaves and 
fruit from diseased trees, such as mummified cherries, 
plums, and peaches, scabby or rotted pears and quinces, 
and all bhghted leaves. Remember that on the first 
warm day the air will be full of the germs of plant 
diseases from these fruits and leaves, if they are not 
destroyed. Do not use them for bedding or mulch, 
and do not throw them into the pig-pen. 

March — The middle or end of this month will see 
everything ready for winter treatment (copper sul- 
phate, I pound to 25 gallons of water). Select a 
w^arm day, or, if possible, several days of warm, 
melting weather. In some seasons winter treatment 
can hardly be made before April. This treatment is 
especially good for diseases of pear and quince, for 
anthracnose and for the black rot of grapes. Where 
the latter has occurred the previous year, ploughing 
between the rows, in order to cover up diseased berries, 



5^ 



SPRAYING CROPS 



will be found of great advantage. This is the time 
also for treatment for San Jose scale. 

April — Put all spraying apparatus in thorough 
order. Clean and rinse pumps, oil all bearings, see 
that the valves work well, and test the tubing for leaks. 
If the winter treatment has been deferred until this 
month, see that it is finished before the middle of 
the month. 

May — This is usually the flowering month for 
vines and fruit trees, and the first application of 
Bordeaux mixture or other fungicide should immedi- 
ately precede the opening of the flowers. Use your 
own jtidgment. Apples are generally in bloom by 
the second week in ]\Iay ; quinces, pears, and grapes 
usually not until somewhat later. The importance of 
these early treatments can hardly be overestimated. 
Watch to see when the petals begin to fall ; and make 
a second application within a few days of that date. 

June — The first part of June usually marks the 
fall of the flowers of most fruit trees. Xever spray 
while trees and vines are in fifll bloom. ]\Iake the 
second application as soon as the petals have fallen. 
This will be late in ]\Iay or early in June, for apples ; 
a week or ten days later for other fruit trees and 
grapes. i\Iake the June treatment thorough. . . . 
A good general rule to follow after the second spray- 
ing is to let each additional treatment be made from 
ten days to three weeks after the preceding one ; the 
shorter interval if there are heavy washing rains ; the 
longer if the weather is comparatively dry. 

July — This month will close the treatment for most 
diseases. To avoid the spotting of grapes by the Bor- 
deaux mixture, the two applications during the latter 
part of this month should consist of the ammoniacal 
solution of copper carbonate. Early in the month 



A SPRAYING CALENDAR 



53 



Spray for black rot of quinces, and continue treatment 
every two weeks until the last of August. 

August — The spraying season closes this month. 
For leaf -blight of strawberries, mow the leaves late in 
July or early in August, and after allowing them to dry 
where they lie, set fire to them and burn the bed over. 
Thoroughly clean and oil all spraying apparatus, and 
see that it is carefully stored. 

September^ October, and November — The months 
of harvest. When picking fruit let one or two boys 
follow and clean the trees of all diseased and mummi- 
fied fruit, collecting it in baskets to burn. At the same 
time gather and burn, as far as possible, all diseased 
fruit which has fallen. In November clean the orchard 
thoroughly of fallen leaves, especially if disease has 
been prevalent, and burn them. Better to destroy 
them now than in the spring, when the fungus fruit 
wall have come to maturity in and on the leaves. 

December — The black knot fungus matures during 
December and January ; attack it early in the former 
month. Use the pruning knife unsparingly, cutting 
out two or three inches above and below each knot. 
Burn every knot and paint the wound over at once. 

SPRAYING PRECAUTIONS 

The man who uses a spraying machine assumes a 
responsibility which he has no right to neglect. Some 
precautions to be taken are indicated below. 

Always label all poisonous preparations in plain 
large letters, POISON. Never leave poisonous com- 
pounds zvithin the reach of children, ignorant persons, 
or domestic animals. Never spray trees in blossom. 

In using a compound with zvhich you have had no 
experience, and zvhich is reported as at all liable to 
injure foliage, use only zveak mixtures, and, if pos- 
sible, try its effects first on a small scale. 



54 



SPRAYING CROPS 



Ozi^n a sprayijig pump yourself. If you have to 
zvaif to borrozi' your ncighhor'Sj the chances are that 
you zcill begin too late. 

Spray in- time ; begin early ; do not wait until the 
horse is stolen and then try to lock the door by 
spraying. 

Do not spray indiscriminately, anything and 
everything. Adapt your means to yonr ends. Study 
the enemies of your crops and then fight them 
intelligently. 

Of tzco mixtures equally effective, choose the one 
least liable to injure foliage. Take the trouble to add 
a little lime to Paris green or London purple mixtures. 

Never spray ripening fruit. 

Alzvays remember that spraying requires the 
exercise of skill, judgment and knozcledge, to get the 
best results. 



PART I 

SPRAYING THE LARGER FRUITS 



San Jose Scale 

at pear, moderately infested — natural size; b, female scale — enlarged 
(After Howard) 



Spraying the Larger Fruits 



THE APPLE 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE TRUNK AND BRANCHES 

The most destructive insect that comes under this 
heading is the San Jose Scale or Pernicious Scale. 
which has attracted so much attention during recent 
years. This pest is now very generally distributed 
over the United States and is yearly doing an enor- 
mous amount of damage. It can at once be distin- 
guished from the Oyster-shell Bark-louse by its cir- 
cular scale, as shown at b in the figure on the opposite 
page. This insect infests practically all kinds of 
deciduous trees, and if unmolested it is liable to kill 
them. It m.ultiplies with marvelous rapidity, espe- 
cially through the long seasons of the southern states. 

Dr L. O. Howard describes the San Jose scale as 
''perfectly round, or at most very slightly elongated 
or irregular. It is flat, pressed close to the bark, 
resembles the bark of the twigs in color, and when 
fully grown is about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. 
At or near the middle of each scale is a small, round, 
slightly elongated black point ; or this point may some- 
times appear yellowish. When occurring upon the 
bark of the twigs or leaves and in large numbers, the 
scales lie close to each other, frequently overlapping, 
and are at such times difficult to distinguish without 
a magnifying glass. The general appearance which 
they present is of a grayish, very slightly roughened 



58 



SPRAYING CROPS 



scurfy deposit. The natural rich reddish color of the 
limbs of the peach and apple is quite obscured when 
these trees are thickly infested, and they have then 
every appearance of being coated with lime or ashes. 
When the scales are crushed by scraping, a yellowish 
oily liquid will appear, resulting from the crushing 
of the soft yellow insects beneath the scales, and this 



San Jose Scale 

Apple branch, with scales ^zV;' — natural size; enlarged scales above, at left 
(After Howard) 

will at once indicate to one who is not familiar with 
their appearance the existence of healthy living scales 
on the trees.'' 

The young scale lice come out from beneath the 
female scales, in spring, soon after the unfolding of 
the leaves. They are minute yellowish creatures 
which crawl about over the bark a short time, and 
finally fasten themselves to it, generally on the new 




THE APPLE 



59 



growth, where each secretes a scale and develops. 
Some of them wander to the leaves and fruit, where 
they mature. The infested leaves turn brown, but 
do not have a tendency to fall as a result of the 
damage. 

This pest is most likely to be introduced into new 
localities upon nursery stock imported from infested 
regions. This is believed to be the way in which it 
was first brought to the eastern states. It is also likely 
to be carried upon fruit sent to market. In a given 
locality the insects are most likely to be carried from 
tree to tree and orchard to orchard by the young lice 
crawling upon insects and birds and then crawling ofif 
after they have lit upon other trees. They may also 
be blown about by the wind. 

Rein c dies — The two remedies now generally 
employed in the eastern states are kerosene or crude 
petroleum and the lime, salt and sulphur wash. The 
latter has been rapidly gaining friends of late and by 
many authorities is considered the most effective 
remedy. Both of these insecticides are applied in 
winter or early spring — before the leaves appear. The 
application must be thorough — covering all parts of 
the tree. 

A piece of bark covered with the scales of the 
Oyster-shell Bark-louse is represented on page 60. 
If one of these scales be raised early in the spring, 
there will be found beneath it a mass of yellowish 
or whitish eggs, which hatch about the middle of 
May into small lice, that appear as mere specks 
to the naked eye. These move about over the 
bark a few days, when they fix themselves upon it, 
inserting their tiny beaks far enough to reach the sap. 
Here they continue to increase in size, and by the 
end of the season have secreted scaly coverings. 



6o 



SPRAYING CROPS 



Re7]iedies—T>\xving the winter and early spring 
scrape the trunk and larger branches with a hoe, and 
then thoroughly scrub with a scrub-brush dipped in a 
solution made by adding one part of crude carbolic 
acid to seven parts of a solution made by dissolving 




Oyster=shell Bark=louse 

a, scales on apple twig; <5, female scale, back view, magnified; c, female scale 
and eggs, under-side, magnified; d, male scale^ magnified 

one quart of soft soap, or one-fourth of a pound of 
hard soap, in two quarts of boiling water. Then in 
i\Iay or June, soon after the young lice have hatched, 
spray with kerosene emulsion. When the lice are 
young they are very readily destroyed by this sub- 
stance. The lime, salt and sulphur wash appears to 
be effective also against this pest. 





Transformations of the Tent Caterpillar 

(After Riley) 



62 



SPRAYING CROPS 



There are frequently found on the hmbs and 
trunks of young apple trees, masses of a white, woolly 
substance, beneath which are small, yellowish plant- 
lice. These are the insects known as the Woolly 
Aphis. There are two forms of the insect, one 
attacking the roots, the presence of which may be 
easily detected by the knotty appearance of the infested 
rootlets, and one attacking the limbs and trunk. Like 
other aphides, these insects multiply rapidly ^luring the 
summer months, bA' gi\dng birth to living young. They 
injure the tree by sucking out its sap through their 
tiny beaks. They are especially liable to infest young 
trees, or those which are unhealthy. 

Remedies — \Mien on the trunk and limbs spray 
with kerosene emulsion ; on roots apply hot water, or 
kerosene emulsion, or dig in refuse tobacco powder 
and stems. 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT 

The insects affecting the fruit of the apple, which 
may be fought by spraying, are the Codling ]\Ioth. and 
the Pltmi and Apple Curculios. Of these, the Cod- 
ling Moth or Apple Worm is the most destructive, 
and is, in fact, the most generally injurious apple 
insect. Its life-history has already been described in 
the Introduction (page 2). In fighting this insect 
it is often desirable to supplement the spraying with 
burlap bands upon the trees the latter part of June to 
trap the worms when they change to pupae, crushing 
them before they emerge as moths. Care should be 
taken also to prevent the egress of moths in spring 
from rooms in which apples have been stored. 

In Oregon it seems to be necessary to spray late 
for the second brood of worms. But if the burlap 
bands were used persistently this probably could be 
avoided. 



THE APPLE 



63 



The Apple Curculio is a small, dull brown, hard- 
shelled beetle, with a long snout and four peculiar 
warts on its back. The beetles drill holes in young 
apples, both for food and the deposition of eggs. The 
latter are laid at the bottom of the cavity, and soon 
hatch into grubs or larvae that feed upon the pulp of 
the fruit. They usually penetrate to the core, where 
they continue feeding four or five weeks, when they 
become full grown and pupate within the cavity of the 




Apple Buds 

apple. Two or three weeks later they emerge as per- 
fect beetles, which pass the winter under boards or 
rubbish. The fruit attacked by this pest becomes 
dwarfed, gnarly and ill-shapen. Apples are often 
seriously injured by the Plum Curculio, which works 
in a way similar to the apple curculio. Its life-history 
is described on page 4. 

Remedies— The injuries of these two insects, as 
well as of several others of minor importance, may be 
prevented to a considerable extent by spraying with the 



64 



SPRAYING CROPS 



arsenical poisons. Spray first as soon as the blossoms 
have all fallen, and again about ten .days later. In 
localities where the curculios are very injurious, one or 
two more sprayings may often be made to advantage 
at intervals of two weeks, especially on late varieties. 
It will pay to add lime to the spraying solution (see 
page lo), unless the arsenite is combined with Bor- 
deaux mixture, which has the same saving effect. The 
addition of lime is not necessary, how^ever, if arsenate 
of lead is used. 

The poison is supposed to take effect in the case 
of the codling moth by destroying the young 
larvae just after hatching and probably while attempt- 
ing to nibble through the skin ; while with the 
curculios it takes eff'ect upon the parent beetles, thus 
preventing the deposition of eggs. 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

A large variety of insects feed upon apple foliage. 
]\Iany of them are caterpillars of moths, and are easily 
destroyed by spraying. Among the m.ost injurious of 
these are the Canker Worms, of which we have two 
distinct species — the Fall Canker \\'orm and the 
Spring Canker Worm. The different stages of the 
former pest are illustrated on page 5, where a resume 
of its life-history will be found. When an orchard is 
infested by canker-worms it is very desirable to spray 
once before the blossoms open. The insects begin 
hatching early in the season ; if trees are not sprayed 
until after the blossoms fall considerable damage will 
be done before the worms are killed. One spraying 
just before the blossom buds open will be of much 
service. Another should be given as soon as the blos- 
soms fall; and if the canker-worm.s are very numerous 
a third — a week or ten days after the second — will 
be desirable. 



THE APPLE 



65 



The Tent Caterpillar is another insect that is 
often extremely destructive to apple foliage. This is 
the creature that constructs the silken tent-like nests 
so often seen in spring on the branching limbs of apple 
and wild cherry trees. Its life-history is as follows : 
The eggs are deposited during July in compact masses 
of 200 or 300 each upon the twigs (e, c), and are 




Apple Tree Flea=Beetle 

(After Popenoe) 



covered with varnish (e). The following spring 
they hatch into caterpillars that feed upon the tender 
foliage and make a silken tent in a fork of the twigs. 
They become full grown in about six weeks (a, b). 
They then leave the tree and crawl about in search of 
a suitable shelter to pupate in. Having found this — 
beneath a board, or in the cracks of a fence — they spin 
an oval, silken cocoon (rf), yellow when completed, 
within which they change to pupae. In two or three 



66 



SPRAYING CROPS 



weeks the reddish-brown moths come forth. These 

deposit the clusters of eggs, after which they soon die. 

There are a number of other caterpillars which 
feed upon apple foliage, notably several species of 
Leaf-rollers, the Yellow-xecked Caterpillar, the 
Leaf-crumpler, the Leaf-skeletonizer, etc, all of 
which are treated of in the author's Insects and Insecti- 
cides, and all of which m_ay be destroyed by spraying. 
The Apple-tree Flea-beetle is a small shining beetle 
that is often destructive in the West. Spraying with 
the arsenites checks it. 




Apple Aphis 

Much magnified 



The Apple Aphis — During spring the leaves and 
tender twigs of apple are often covered with small 
green lice or aphides. These are the insects known as 
the Apple Aphis. They injure the trees by sucking 
the sap through their tiny beaks. The lice hatch from 
eggs in spring as soon as the leaf-buds begin to expand, 
and they increase with marvelous rapidity, so that 
almost as fast as the leaves develop there are colonies 
of the plant-lice to occupy them. They breed on apple 
until July, when they largely leave the trees, and 
migrate apparently to various grasses. Here they 



THE APPLE 



67 



continue breeding until autumn, when they return to 
apple, and the winged females establish colonies of 
the wingless, egg-laying form upon the leaves. The 
small, oval eggs are now laid on the twigs and buds, 
and the cycle for the year is complete. 

Remedy — On large trees it is seldom, necessary 
to apply remedies for this insect. Spray with tobacco 
decoction or kerosene emulsion as soon in spring as 
the eggs hatch — usually before the leaves expand. 

The opening buds of apples are sometimes seri- 
ously injured by the larva of the Eye-spotted Bud- 
moth. This is a small cylindrical worm, three- 
fourths of an inch long, which lives in a rude case 
made by fastening particles of dead leaves together 
with silk. It attacks the buds, blossoms, and newly - 
formed fruit as well as the leaves, and becomes full- 
grown early in June. The larvae then pupate within 
their cases, and in a few weeks emerge as small moths, 
with two little eye-spots on each of the front wings. 

Remedies — This is a difficult pest to contend with, 
and the most promising remedy is to spray early, as 
the buds are opening, with arsenate of lead or other 
arsenical or a combination of an arsenical and the 
Bordeaux mixture, continuing the treatment later as 
recommended below. 

FUNGUS enemies 

Probably no fungous disease of fruit is more 
familiar to the general public than the Apple Scab, 
or, as it is occasionally called, the Black Spot. This is 
due to a fungus whi'ch produces the well-known scabby 
spots upon the fruit, and also attacks the leaves and 
green shoots. It first appears on the leaves in the 
shape of smoky, greenish spots, more or less circular 
in outline. These gradually enlarge, and frequently 
several of them run together, so as to form good-sized 



68 



SPRAYING CROPS 



blotches ; and as they grow older their color darkens, 
finally becoming almost black. The upper surface of 
the leaf is generally the one infested. Immense num- 
bers of spores are produced on these blackened spots 
of the leaf and fruit, forming most abundantly during 
cool, wet weather. By means of these spores the 
fungus reproduces itself ; they are carried from leaf 
to leaf and fruit to fruit by wind and rain, and ger- 
minating, start the disease in a new situation. The 
spores pass the winter on stored fruit, branches, fallen 
leaves, etc, and in spring start the disease again. It 
is especially destructive in wet seasons. 

A disease called Pink Rot often attacks scabby 
apples in storage, the fungus of the pink rot getting 
access to the pulp of the fruit through the cracks in 
the skin caused by the scab. 

Remedies — In spring, just before blossoms open, 
spray thoroughly with the Bordeaux mixture, repeat 
the application after the blossoms have fallen, adding 
arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons, in 
order to destroy the codling moth larvae, and other 
insects, as well as the scab; ten days after this last 
application, spray again with the combination of Bor- 
deaux mixture and an arsenical. Do not apply the 
Bordeaux mixture late in the season ; it is liable to 
injure the skin of the apple by giving it a rough and 
russet appearance. Fruit sprayed in this way is much 
larger and finer than that not sprayed. 

In southerly latitudes, orchardists are greatly 
troubled by another fungous disease, the Apple Rot, 
which attacks the maturing fruit, rotting it and caus- 
ing serious losses. Experiments in Kentucky by Pro- 
fessor Garman have shown that this disease may be 
prevented by treatment with Bordeaux mixture similar 
to that indicated above. 



THE PLUM 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT 

The Plum Curculio is by far the worst insect foe 
of the plum. It is the cause of most of the common 
worminess and premature dropping of the fruit. An 
account of its Hfe-history will be found on page 4. 

Remedies— The evidence in hand indicates that 
spraying with the arsenites is an effective way to figh: 
this pest, especially in orchards of considerable size. 
This remedy acts by destroying the adult beetles 
rather than the larvae. The trees should be sprayed 
three or four times, at intervals of ten days or two 
weeks, beginning, as soon as the blossoms have fallen, 
with arsenate of lead in good strength or with Paris 
green mixed with water in the proportion of 3 ounces 
to 40 to 50 gallons. These sprayings will also destroy 
certain other insects affecting the fruit, although it is 
generally supposed that they will not kill the Plum 
GouGER — an insect related to the curculios — which is 
very injurious in some of the western states. The best 
way will probably be to combine arsenate of lead with 
the Bordeaux mixture as described under the next 
heading, and so fight both the insect and fungus pests 
at the same time. This is especially desirable because 
some of the arsenites alone are liable to injure the 
foliage when a series of applications are made, though 
this is not true of the lead arsenate. 

During recent years trouble has been experienced 
in some localities because of the Fruit-bark Borer, 
an insect that burrows channels beneath the bark. 
There is some evidence to show that spraying the 
trunks and larger branches with the combination of 



SPRAYING CROPS 



Bordeaux mixture and Paris green will prevent such 
injury. The first application should be made early in 
the spring, and others follow at occasional intervals 
until July. 

FUNGUS ENEMIES 

The Brown Rot of Stone-fruits is the most 
serious enemy under this heading. Fruit affected by 
this disease turns brown and rots, and generally de- 
velops on the skin a velvety or powdery brown coating. 
This coating consists of a great number of minute 
spores fastened together, end to end. If one of these 
velvety masses be shaken over a glass slide and the 
slide then put under a microscope, it will be seen that 
a great many of the spores have separated and fallen 
off. When one of - these spores lights upon a green 
plum, peach, or cherry, and a drop of water happens 
to form over it, it sends out a germinating tube which 
penetrates the skin of the fruit, and once inside de- 
velops a mass of mycelium, disorganizing the tissues 
and causing rot. Then this mycelium develops a nev/ 
mass of spores, and thus the fungus propagates itself. 
After the development of the spores, the plums or 
peaches dry up and hang on the limbs until the follow- 
ing season, when they start the disease again. Even 
the blossoms are often attacked. 

The first step towards preventing this disease is to 
pick off and burn the dry and mummied plums that 
hang on the trees over winter. These carry the dis- 
ease through cold weather and start it again in the 
spring. The fruit rots worst when it hangs on the 
tree until fully ripe. In commercial orchards it should 
be picked before it is ripe. Rotting plums during the 
ripening period should also be promptly removed. 

During summer the leaves of plums and cherries 
are often injured by the Plum Leaf-blight or 



THE PLUM 



7i 



Shot-hole Fungus, which first appears in the shape 
of small dark purple spots scattered over the leaf. 
These spots soon become brown, and the leaf tissue 




Diseased Plum Leaf 

(After Bailey) 



composing them is dead. This dead tissue generally 
drops out of the leaf in course of a few weeks, leaving 
circular holes resembling shot holes. A microscopic 
examination of the under surface of these spots gen- 



7^ 



SPRAYING CROPS 



erally reveals one or more blackish points consist- 
ing of the fruiting spores of the fungus. It is by 
means of these that it passes the winter, and propa- 
gates itself. The affected leaves often turn yellow 
and fall oft'. 

Remedies — It has been definitely proven that these 
diseases may largely be prevented by spraying. A 
treatment similar to that recommended for apple-scab, 
one spraying with dilute Bordeaux mixture before 
blossoms open, then two or three sprayings with Bor- 
deaux mixture having an excess of lime and one of 
the arsenites after the fruit forms, is the most prom- 
ising treatment for both insect and fungus pests. It 
may be necessary to make one or two late sprayings 
with a carbonate of copper solution in case rot sets in. 
The mummied plums should be picked oft* and burned 
in the winter : and an early spring spraying with 
simple solution of copper sulphate, applied before the 
buds swell, is very beneficial. The Japanese plums are 
verj^ sensitive to sprays, but they are less liable to 
these diseases. 



THE PEACH 



INSECT ENEMIES 

The San Jose Scale is one of the most destructive 
enemies of the peach. Winter spraying with the Hme, 
salt and sulphur wash seems to be the most efifective 
remedy. 

The Plum Curculio, whose Hfe-history has 
already been treated of on page 4, breeds in peaches, 
as well as in plums, cherries, apples, and other fruits. 
It is especially liable to injure peaches when there is a 
failure of the apple crop. Some of the largest grow- 
ers in America jar their peach trees systematically to 
catch the curculios. Apparently it is still a question 
whether the insect could be successfully fought by 
spraying with arsenate of lead. Peach foliage is 
especially liable to injury by some of the arsenites. 

Peach foliage is occasionally attacked by the Red- 
legged Flea-beetle, a small jumping beetle which 
may be destroyed by spraying with arsenate of lead. 

There are two distinct species of aphides or 
plant-lice attacking the peach. One is called the 
Peach Aphis, and the other the Black Peach Aphis. 
The latter infests the roots and twigs as w^ell as the 
leaves. Both species are soft, blackish little creatures 
that crowd together on the foliage and twigs. During 
the summer they reproduce viviparously. Spraying 
with fish-oil soap, tobacco decoction, or kerosene emul- 
sion, as early as possible after the pests appear in 
spring, is the best remedy. The time to reach them 
easiest is when the buds are swelling and the newly 
hatched lice are on the bare twigs. 



74 



SPRAYING CROPS 



FUNGUS ENEMIES 

It often happens that in spring, soon after the 
leaves begin to expand, the fohage of peach trees be- 
comes curled and misshapen. The leaves are usually 




Peach Leaf=curl] 

(After Bailey) 



thickened and discolored, and fall off in a short time. 
All the branches may be attacked, or the injury may 
be confined to only a part of the tree. When the dis- 
ease is severe the young fruits fall off, and the crop 
for the year is destroyed. The defoliated trees soon 



THE PEACH 



75 



push out a new set of leaves, but too late to repair the 
damage done to the fruit crop. 

This Peach Leaf-curl is most injurious during 
wet springs. It often ruins the peach crop over large 
areas. It is uncertain in its attacks, some seasons 
doing much damage and others comparatively little. 

Remedies — It has been repeatedly demonstrated 
that a single spraying with Bordeaux mixture in early 
spring will prevent this disease. All trees should be 
sprayed with a good strength of Bordeaux mixture at 
least two weeks before the blossoms open. The appli- 
cation should be so thorough as to cover the branches 
and buds all over the tree. In all cases the nozzle 
should be held below rather than above the part of 
the tree being treated and the spray thus directed 
upward will in falling wet the upper side of the 
horizontal branches. 

The Brown Rot, already discussed as a plum 
disease (page 70), is often extremely destructive to 
peaches. It sometimes attacks the trees early in 
spring, causing an injury to the twigs and blossoms 
called blight, and again infests the fruit up to the 
time of ripening, and even after it is gathered. 

The most promising remedial measures are those 
of picking off all the dry peaches hanging on the tree 
during winter, and then spraying early 'in the spring 
before the buds begin to swell, w4th a dilute Bordeaux 
mixture, not more than 2 pounds copper sulphate to 
50 gallons water, which may often be repeated to ad- 
vantage just before the blossoms open. Then after the 
blossom petals have fallen spray twice with an inter- 
val of two weeks between. Peach foliage is very 
easily injured, and care should be taken in spraying 
it. Two or three pounds more lime should be used in 
the Bordeaux mixture than usual, to avoid injury to 
the foliage. 



THE PEAR 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT 

The fruit of the pear is attacked by both the Cod- 
ling ]\IoTH and the Plum Curculio. The injury of 
the latter causes it to be knotty, gnarly, and one-sided, 
ruining it for market purposes. Fortunately the in- 
juries of both may largely be prevented by two or 
three sprayings with arsenate of lead mixed with 
water at the rate of i pound to 50 gallons. The first 
application should be made as soon as the petals have 
fallen, and the others at intervals of ten days or 
two weeks. 




Pear Tree Slug 

(After Saunders) 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The leaves of pear, cherry, quince, and plum trees 
are frequently attacked during June and July by a 
greenish-black, slimy slug that eats the upper surface. 
This is the Pear-tree Slug. The adult is a four- 
winged black fly that deposits eggs in the leaf early in 
the summer. The eggs soon hatch into larA^ae which 
become full-grown in four or five weeks. They then 
shed their slimy skins, appearing in clean yellow ones, 
and soon descend to the ground, which they enter two 
or three inches, and pupate in oval cocoons. A fort- 



THE PEAR 



77 



night later the flies emerge. These larvae are easily 
destroyed by spraying with hellebore or the arsenites. 

In a number of the eastern states a small insect, 
the Pear Psylla, has recently caused serious damage 
by sucking the sap from the leaves. The insects pass 
the winter as adults, and in early spring deposit eggs 
on the bark, especially about the buds. About a fort- 
night later they hatch into young — called nymphs — 
which suck the sap from the petioles of the leaves and 
stems of the young fruit. Recent experiments have 
shown that the young nymphs may easily be destroyed 
by spraying with kerosene emulsion. 




Pear Psylla 

Magnified. (After Slingerland) 

FUNGUS enemies 

The Pear Leaf-blight is the most destructive 
fungous disease of the pear for which the spraying 
machine may be successfully used. It occurs both on 
the foliage and fruit; on the former causing small, 
discolored spots, and on the latter producing a very 
injurious cracking of the skin. It appears soon after 
the leaves develop, in the shape of small dull-red spots 
on the upper surface ; then the lower surface becomes 
spotted, and the spots gradually change to a dark 



78 



SPRAYING CROPS 



brown color with black specks in the middle. The 
affected portions enlarge, and finally the whole leaf 
becomes diseased and falls off. The red spots also 
appear upon the fruit ; the skin becomes much rough - 
ened and finally splits open in long cracks. 

Remedies — Spray twice with the 50 or 60-gallon 
formula of the Bordeaux mixture, applying first about 
one month after the blossoms fall, and again a month 
later. If more than two applications of the Bordeaux 
mixture are made after blooming there is danger of 




Quince Leaf Blight 



giving the fruit a russet appearance. In case of early 
pears only one application should be made after 
blooming. If late applications are made the copper 
carbonate or some similar fungicide should be used. 
The effect of treatment with the Bordeaux mixture, as 
shown in one of I\Ir Galloway's experiments, is illus- 
trated on page 134. 

By adding an arsenical to the Bordeaux mixture, 
both insect and fungus injuries will be prevented. 

The Pear Scab is a disease verv similar to apple 
scab, the fungus, in fact, being believed by many bot- 



THE PEAR 



79 



anists to be the same species. At any rate, the chief 
points in the hfe-history and remedial treatment are the 
same as for the apple disease. Spray with dilute 
Bordeaux mixture, first as soon as fruit buds open ; 
second just before blooming; third as soon as blossoms 
fall, and fourth about three weeks later. 

Care should be taken not to apply the Bordeaux 
mixture too late in the season. Early varieties should 
have but one spraying with this mixture after the fruit 
''sets," and late varieties but two. Where additional 
applications are needed, use the copper carbonate 
solution. 

Pear trees, especially older ones in southern lati- 
tudes, as well as apple trees, are often largely covered 
with Lichens of various kinds. Recent experiments 
by Mr M. B. Waite show that these are destroyed by 
spraying with the Bordeaux mixture. 

The quince is subject to the leaf -blight above 
discussed as a pear pest, and to various other diseases. 
As a general rule, it should receive treatment similar 
to that given the pear, although a larger number of 
sprayings seem to be necessary. 



THE CHERRY 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT 

The Plum Curculio, which has already been dis- 
cussed under The Plum (page 69), is also exceedingly 
injurious to cherries. The latter, however, usually do 
not fall off when infested by the curculio larvae, but 
remain on the tree until the fruit ripens. The remedial 
measures suggested in connection with the plum are 
equally applicable to this fruit. 

Some varieties of cherries, especially the early 
ones, are very susceptible to injury by arsenites. 
Arsenate of lead seems to be the safest poison to use 
on them. Do not spray early varieties more than 
twice, or late ones more than three times. 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The twigs and under surface of the leaves of 
cherry trees are frequently thickly infested during May 
and June by small, shining black plant-lice, that suck 
out the sap and deform the leaves. This insect is the 
Cherry Aphis. It winters over on the twigs in the 
egg state. Early in spring the eggs hatch into young 
aphides that insert their tiny sap-sucking beaks into the 
unfolding leaves. In a week or ten days they become 
full-grown, and give birth to young lice, which soon 
develop and repeat the process. In this way they 
increase with marvelous rapidity. Late in June or 
early in July they leave the cherry, migrating to some 
other plant. Here they develop through the summer, 
and in autumn a winged brood again appears and 



THE CHERRY 



8l 



migrates back to the cherry. These migrants give 
birth to young that develop into egg-laying females, 
which deposit small, oval, shining black eggs upon 
the twigs. 

Remedy — Spray with kerowater, kerosene emul- 
sion or whale-oil soap. This can be done most easilv 
and eftectively early in spring, when the newly-hatched 
lice are crowded upon the bursting buds. 

The Pear-tree Slug, which has already been 
discussed as a pear insect, is probably as destructive 
to cherry foliage as to that of the pear. Its life-history 
on the two fruits is similar, and the remedies are the 
same in both cases. 

FUNGUS EXEMIES 

The cherry is subject to much the same fungou: 
diseases that the plum is. The leaves are attacked by 
the Leaf Blight, and the fruit by Browx Rot. The 
remedial measures already suggested for these diseases 
are applicable here. 



PART II 

SPRAYING SMALL FRUITS AND 
NURSERY STOCK 



strawberry Leaf Affected with Blight 

(After Garman) 



Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock 



THE STRAWBERRY 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The transformations of the Strawberry Slug 
have been well represented by Dr Riley in the figure 
on page 86. The four-winged fly (3) appears in 
spring, and deposits its eggs within the tissues of the 
leaf or stem. The larvae feed upon the leaf, gnawing 
small, circular holes at first. They develop in five or 
six weeks into pale green worms (4, 6) about three- 
fourths of an inch long. The larvae now go slightly 
beneath the soil surface, and there they form cocoons 
(7) within which they change to the pupa state (i, 2), 
and later emerge as flies. In the southern states there 
are two broods each season, while at the north there 
appears to be but one. 

Remedies — On the non-fruiting plantations this 
pest may be destroyed by spraying or dusting with 
hellebore or arsenate of lead. On fruiting plantations 
this method may be used in localities where a second 
brood of larvae appears after the fruit is gathered. 

The Strawberry Leaf-roller is a small, brown- 
ish caterpillar that folds the leaflets of the strawberry 
by bringing the upper surfaces together and fastening 
them by silken cords, and feeds upon their substance 
till they look brown and scorched. It hatches from 
eggs laid in spring upon the strawberry plants by a 
small reddish-brown moth. The larva attains its full 



86 



SPRAYING CROPS 



growth in June, when it is nearly half an inch long, of 
a brown or greenish color, with a shining yellowish- 
brown head. It pupates within the rolled leaf, and 
about midsummer emerges as a moth. These moths 
deposit eggs for a second brood, that feed upon the 
leaves late in summer, changing to pupae early in 
autumn ; and, passing the winter in that condition, 
emerge as moths the following spring. 



strawberry Slug 

I, 2, pupa; 3, 3, fly; 4, 6, larvae; 7, cocoon; 8, antenna; 9, egg, magnified 
(After Riley) 

Remedies — Mow the field soon after the crop is 
gathered, and after leaving it a day or two to become 
dry, burn it over. This destroys the leaf-rollers as well 
as several other kinds of insects, and the spores of fun- 
gous diseases. Scatter a little straw over the field 
where the leaves are not thick enough to burn well. 
The plants will not be damaged, but will soon send up 
a new lot of leaves that will grow rapidly, and be free 
from insect and fungus attack. If for any reason this 
method is not desirable, the insects of the second 




THE STRAWBERRY 



«7 



brood may be destroyed by spraying or dusting the 
plants in August with some poisonous insecticide. 

The foliage of strawberries is also attacked by cer- 
tain Strawberry Leaf-beetles, the parents of the 
Strawberry Root-worms. On young non-fruiting 
plantations, and on fruiting plantations after the crop 
is gathered, these insects may be destroyed by spray- 
ing with an arsenical poison. 

fungus enemies 

The Strawberry Leaf-blight or Rust is the 
most destructive fungus enemy of this fruit. ''The 
presence of the blight fungus," says Professor H. 
Garman, ''is first marked by the appearance of small 
brown spots, varying from one-sixteenth to one-eighth 
inch. As they become abundant the spots fuse, form- 
ing extensive brown areas, and finally occupy the whole 
leaf. Eventually most spots show at the upper side of 
the leaves a rim of dull purple of varying width. 
Towards fall this change in the color of the leaf is 
more prevalent. If one of the spots be cut through 
with a pair of fine scissors, the leaf will be foimd, at 
the point where the spot is formed, much thinner than 
elsewhere, because of the killing and drying out of 
its substance. Examined under a microscope, the 
fungus may now be found to have pushed through the 
tissues of the leaf, and to have formed all over the 
brown central region of the spot, but most abundantly 
at its margins, small whitish ttifts, looking like micro- 
scopic shrubs. These are the fruiting parts of the 
parasite, and are made up of numerous threads, each 
bearing at its summit a long jointed spore. As these 
latter ripen they are ?et free, and are scattered upon 
fresh leaves by winds and rains, to germinate there, 
push into the leaves, and form new spots." The fun- 



88 



SPRAYING CROPS 



gus is propagated by these long spores throughout the 
summer, but in autumn the threads of m}xehum "form 
solid tissue-like masses in the dead parts of the spots," 
which finally appear at the surface as small black dots. 
By means of these dots or nodules the fungus passes 
the winter. A leaf affected by this disease is repre- 
sented on page 84. 




strawberry Leaf Folded by Leaf=roller 

(After Garman) 



Remedies — During July and August spray with 
Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal solution of copper 
carbonate, at intervals of two weeks. Try mowing 
and burning foliage soon after the fruit is gathered, 
and then spray as just directed. ^Mowing and burning 
at this time, without subsequent spraying, is believed 
to increase rather than diminish the blight, at least 



THE STRAWBERRY 



89 



southward ; but mowing and burning may often be 
done to good advantage, at least in southerly latitudes, 
in autumn. On the whole the most satisfactory 
method of keeping strawberry enemies in check is by 
frequent renewals of the plantation. 



THE CURRANT AXD GOOSEBERRY 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The most destructive insect enemy of currant 
foliage is the Imported Currant Worm. Early in 
spring four-winged saw-flies deposit rows of small, 
whitish, glassy eggs on the principal veins of the 
under side of the lower leaves. In about ten days the 
small worms hatch and eat circular holes in the leaf. 
At first these larvae are whitish in color ; they moult at 
short intervals, first changing to green, then to green 
v ith numerous black spots, and at last back again to a 
plain light green, with a tinge of yellow at the sides 
and ends. The full-grown larvae descend to the 
ground, where they spin tough brown cocoons beneath 
the leaves and rubbish, within which they change to 
pupae. From these cocoons the flies emerge early in 
summer, to lay eggs for a second brood, which passes 
the winter within the cocoons. 

Remedy — Spray with hellebore — i ounce to 3 
gallons water — as soon as holes appear in lower leaves. 
Spray again ten days later. Or spray with arsenites 
(7^ soon as tlic Icaz'es expand, but never after the 
fruit sets. 

Currant leaves are often specked with white bv 
the Currant Leaf-hopper, a small, pale-green insect, 
one-tenth inch long, that lives on the under side and 
sucks the sap. The chief damage is done by the first 
brood, the insects leaving the bushes in early summer, 
probably preferring at this time the more succulent 
foliage of other plants. 



THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRV 



91 



Remedies—Spr^y forcibly with kcrowater, or 
kerosene emulsion, pyrethrum or insect-powder — i 
ounce to 3 gallons water ; or with tobacco decoction. 
Begin early, before the insects get their wings. 

The foliage on the tips of currant and gooseberry 
stems is often blighted in spring by the Four-lined 
Leaf-bug, a small insect represented natural size and 




Currant Worms Eating Leaves 

(After Riley) 



magnified on page 92. The young appear early in 
spring and suck the sap from the unfolding leaves, 
causing them to wilt and appear blighted as in the 
picture on page 93. 

Mr AI. V. Slingerland, who has studied this pest 
thoroughly, finds that its eggs are laid in currant stems 
and pass the winter there. Consequently pruning the 
stems between September and April — burning the por^ 
tions cut ofif — will be a partial preventive : and spray- 
ing with kerosene emulsion early in the season, when 



Spraying crops 



the insects are immature, will destroy many of them. 
The only other remedy suggested is that of jarring the 
pests into pans containing kerosene and water. 

The Currant Aphis is a small, yellowish insect 
found on the under sides of curled and blistered cur- 
rant leaves early in summer. Such leaves are generally 
tinged^ with reddish above. The insects apparently 
migrate to some other plant during the summer, 
returning to the currant in autumn, and depositing 
small, black eggs upon the stems, especially about 
the buds. 




Four=lined Leaf=bug 

Magnified and natural size. (After Slingerland) 



Remedies — On account of the deformed leaves, 
these insects are difficult to reach with insecticides. 
Spray with kerowater or kerosene emulsion or tobacco 
decoction quite early in the season, before the foliage 
has expanded. 

FUNGUS ENEMIES 

For many years it has been impracticable to grow 
foreign varieties of gooseberries in the United States, 



THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 



93 



on account of the attacks of the Gooseberry Mildew- 
According to Dr B. D. Halsted, this mildew ''first 
makes its appearance upon the young half-grown 
leaves, and the unfolding terminal bud of the shoot. 
In its early stage it has a cobwebby appearance, which 
soon becomes white and powdery from the develop- 
ment of the light summer spores. Soon after this, 
thin patches of the same character may be found upon 
the forming berries. Usually one side is more attacked 




Currant Leaves Blighted by Leaf=bug 

(After Slingerland) 



than the other, and as the berry continues to grow 
it becomes one-sided or curved, because the fungus 
retards the development upon the infested side. If 
the berry is entirely covered, its further development 
is generally checked. Later in the season the leaves, 
and especially their petioles, and the young stems 
bearing them, turn to a rusty-brown color, and become 
thickly coated with the fungus. The berries at the 



94 



SPRAYING CROPS 



same time are covered with brown patches of mycelium, 
which may readily be peeled off from the smooth skin 
of the fruit/' 

Remedies — Spray with a solution of potassium 
sulphide (liver of sulphur) at the rate of one-half 
ounce to i gallon water. Begin as soon as the leaves 
commence unfolding, and repeat the application at 
intervals of eighteen to twenty days. The sulphide 
dissolves more readily in hot than in cold water. 
This treatment has proven entirely efficacious for a 
number of years at the New York experiment station. 
Early in the season the Bordeaux mixture may be 
used instead of the sulphide if more convenient, and 
it is desirable to spray with Bordeaux mixture after 
the fruit is gathered, to prevent the various spot- 
diseases, that often cause the foliage to drop off late 
in summer. 

General Treatment — One of the most successful 
currant growers in New England gives his bushes 
three sprayings each season, namely : first, with copper 
sulphate solution in early spring before buds open ; 
second, with Paris green as soon as leaves come out ; 
third, with Bordeaux mixture and Paris green after 
fruit is picked. 



THE GRAPE 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The Grape-vine Flea-beetle is a small, steel- 
blue beetle that is often very destructive to grape-vines. 
As soon in spring as the buds swell the beetles attack 
them, and continue feeding for three or four weeks, 
during the latter part of the time depositing small, 
orange-yellow eggs in clusters on the under sides of 
the leaves. The eggs hatch into small, dark-colored 
larvae that gnaw irregular holes in the leaves. When 
fully grown (three or. four weeks after hatching), they 
are about three-tenths of an inch long, brown in color, 
with six legs, and four or five black dots on the back 
of each ring or segment of the body. The head is 
black, and there are numerous hairs on the body. 
They now enter the soil, pupate, and a few weeks 
later emerge as beetles, which feed upon the foliage 
and lay eggs for a second brood of larvae. 

Remedy — Spray with arsenites as soon as beetles 
appear in spring; or else with the arsenited Bordeaux 
mixture. Repeat in ten to fourteen days if necessary. 

FUNGUS ENEMIES 

The Black Rot of grapes has long been recog- 
nized as the most destructive fungous disease which 
American vineyardists have encountered. Generalh 
the fungus first appears in the shape of roimd, reddish- 
brown spots on the grape leaves. About a fortnight 
later the attack on the berries will be noticed. The 
efifect on these is most disastrous ; as the mycelium 
develops among the cells of the fruit the berries stop 



96 



SPRAYING CROPS 



growing, and finally become disorganized, shapeless, 
juiceless masses, shriveled to one-half their proper 
size and fit only to develop the spores of the destroy- 
ing fungus. And they do produce these spores, which 
are massed together in little black pustules scattered 
over the surface of the withered skin. 

This Black Rot fungus is most destructive in 
southern latitudes. As far north as northern Ohio and 
wxstern New York it is much less virulent than in 
Tennessee or the Carolinas. Like most fungous dis- 
eases it develops with greater rapidity during damp, 
hot weather, or when nights with heavy dews alternate 
with hot days. 

Remedies — Spray with the copper sulphate solu- 
tion before the buds start, then with the Bordeaux 
mixture four or five times, making the first application 
when the first leaves are half-grown ; the second, when 
the fruit has set, repeating the later sprayings at inter- 
vals of about fifteen days. If disease persists so later 
sprayings are necessary, substitute the ammoniacal 
solution of copper carbonate for the last one or two 
sprayings, to avoid spotting the fruit. 

An account of the development of the Downy 
Mildew or Brown Rot of grapes has already been 
given in the Introduction (pages 7-9). This disease 
has been, in years past, extremely destructive over a 
wide area ; and it attacks disastrously both the foliage 
and fruit. In southern latitudes it is said to be most 
injurious to the former. 

Remedies — The Bordeaux mixture is a practical 
and efficient preventive of this disease. Spray first a 
week or ten days before the vine blossoms ; second, 
as soon as the berries are well set; and third, about 
three weeks later. In very wet seasons it may be 
desirable to spray a fourth time, but this is seldom 
done. 



THE RASPBERRY 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The Raspberry Slug is the larva of a four- 
winged black fly with a reddish abdomen, which 
deposits eggs in the leaf during spring. They hatch 
into small, whitish worms that feed upon the tender 
foliage, and in a few weeks become full-grown. They 
are then ^ inch long, of a dark green color, and 
have the body thickly covered with spinose tubercles. 
The slugs now descend to the ground, and construct 
rather firm cocoons slightly beneath the soil surface. 
They remain in these cocoons until spring, when they 
come forth as flies. 

Remedy — Spray the infested bushes with pow- 
dered hellebore. Use from one-half to one pound of 
hellebore to 50 gallons of water, and apply forcibly, 
as soon as the worms appear. 

FUNGUS ENEMIES 

The Anthracnose or Cane-rust of the raspberry 
is one of the most vexatious diseases with which the 
fruit-grower has to contend. Infested canes are char- 
acterized by having numbers of peculiar, grayish, 
depressed spots upon the surface, the spots usually 
having a dark purple margin. This injury is accom- 
panied by a splitting or cracking of the bark, which 
becomes deeper as the cane ripens, and finally extends 
nearly to the pith. The spores are developed usually 
in the central portions of the spots, appearing to the 
unaided eye as yellowish elevations. Canes so at- 
tacked become dwarfed and worthless. 



98 



SPRAYING CROPS 



Rciiitdy — The raspberr\ is very sensitive to the 
corrosive actiun uf fungicides, and it must be sprayed 
with care. Recent expLrnneiits at the Ohio Station 
indicate that the dihute Bordeaux mixture may be used 
to advantage against this disease, although it is not a 
complete remedy. Apply once before the leaves conie 
out, and two or three times afterward, though not after 
the blossoms open. "Care should be taken to direct 
the spray to the young growth, and avoid the old canes 
after the first application." In Canada the recom- 
mended treatment is to spray with copper sulphate 
solution before buds burst, and with Bordeaux mix- 
ture ten or fifteen da}'s after leaves open, repeating' 
the latter soon after the old canes are cut out. 



NURSERY STOCK 



Nursery trees are particularly liable to attack by 
the San Jose scale and others similar to it. The use 
of the lime, salt and sulphur wash and fumigation 
of dormant stock are the standard remedies. The 
leaves of young apple trees are frequently rolled 
together at the tips of the terminal twigs by a 
greenish-yellow, slightly hairy worm about an inch 
long. This is the Lesser Apple Leaf-roller. Its 
life-history is as follows : The eggs are laid in spring 
on the leaves of apple and other plants, the larvae soon 
hatching to devour the foliage, some of w^hich they 
roll into a protective covering. Here they feed for 
about a month, when they pupate within the folded 
leaves, and a week or so later emerge as small orange- 
yellow moths ; these moths lay eggs for another brood 
of larvae, the imagos from which appear in August, 
being also of the same orange color. These in turn 
lay eggs for a third brood of worms, which emerge 
during October as glistening reddish-gray moths, 
which pass the winter in rubbish heaps and fence 
corners and deposit eggs the following spring. 

One often finds during winter, upon the twigs of 
nursery trees, masses of dry brown leaves, which, when 
pulled apart, are seen to surround a long, tubular, 
horn-like case. These cases contain a brownish worm 
or caterpillar, about half an inch long. This is the 
Leaf-crumpler, and it often becomes one of the most 
injurious of nursery pests. The parent is a small 
grayish moth (d) that deposits its eggs during June 
and July on apple, quince and other trees. These eggs 
soon hatch into small brownish worms that construct 
tubular, sjlk|^ cases (a) wnthin which they remain 





100 



SPRAYING CROPS 



concea.ea when not eating. As they grow larger they 
draw about the openings of their abodes many par- 
tially eaten leaves, so that by autumn there is quite a 
bunch surrounding each case (b). At the approach, 
of cold weather the cases are attached to twigs by 
silken threads, and thus the winter is passed. As soon 
as the leaves appear the larvae attack them, frequently 
eating out the flower buds as well. They feed until 
June, when they pupate within the cases. A fortnight 
later the moths emerge. 



The Apple Leaf-skeletonizer .s a brownish or 
greenish larva, which spins a web upon the upper sur- 
face of the leaf, and eats the parenchyma, giving the 
foliage a scorched appearance. The larvae hatch from 
eggs laid late in spring by a little moth, and as the}' 
grow older they spin a slight protective silken web on 
the upper surface of the leaf, beneath which. they feed. 
When full grown (a) they vary from an olive or pale 
green color to brown, are about half an inch long, and 
have four black shining tubercles on the back, just 
behind the head. About midsummer they pupate in 




Lesser Leaf=roller 



a, larv^a; 5, pupa; c, moth; d, rolled leaf 
(After Riley) 



NURSERY STOCK 



lOI 



slight cocoons, and two weeks later the moths emerge. 
Eggs are laid by these moths for the second brood of 
larvae, which when full-grown hibernate in thin 
cocoons. 

Remedies — All three of these pests are open to 
destruction by spraying with arsenites. In regions 




Leaf=cnimpler 

larval case; b, larval case with dead leaves; c, front part of larva; d, moth, 
magnified. (After Riley) 

where the Powdery Mildew is injurious as well as 
these, a combination treatment may be employed, 
adding five or six ounces of Paris green to each barrel 
of Bordeaux mixture. Where fungicide treatment is 
not necessary, spray with arsenites and lime, adding 
the lime to prevent injury to the young and tender 
foliage, unless arsenate of lead is used, as explained 
in the Introduction, whenever either of the insects 
threaten injury, — the earlier the better. 



102 



SPRAYING CROPS 



FUNGUS ENEMIES 

There are at least three fungous diseases of young 
nursery trees to prevent which spraying pays. They 
are : ( i ) the Pear Leaf-blight, which affects quince 
as well as pear stocks; (2) the Powdery Mildew, 
which occurs upon apple and cherry, and (3) the 
Leaf-blight or Leaf-spot of the plum and cherry. 

According to Dr B. T. Galloway, the body or vege- 
tative system of the Pear Leaf-blight consists of 




Leaf =skeleton izer 

larva; part of back, magnified to show markings; r, head and front part 
of larva, magnified; moth, magnified. (After Riley) 

very minute, short, colorless filaments, which grow 
between and through the delicate cells of the leaf, 
''destroying all the latter with which it comes in con- 
tact, and using their nourishment for building up its 
own structure. As a result of this process, the leaf 
shows, here and there on the surface, small, more or 
less circular, dark brown spots ; these spots rapidly 
enlarge, and by running together soon cause the entire 
leaf to turn brown and then fall off. Before the latter 



NURSERY STOCK 



takes place, however, a close examination of the dis- 
eased spots will reveal numerous little black specks , 
these contain the spores or reproductive bodies of the 
fungus, which escape by rupturing the cuticle of the 

















i 








Spraying tor Plum Leat=blight 
(After Galloway) 



leaf with which they are covered. Under proper con- 
ditions of moisture and heat the spores germinate, and 
if this takes place on a pear leaf, the germ tube bores 
its way into the tissues, soon develops into colorless 
filaments, like those already described, and these in 



I04 



SPRAYING CROPS 



turn give rise to more spores/' The fungus passes 
the winter by means of the late summer spores which 
remain attached to the fallen leaves. 

Remedy — "Spray first with the Bordeaux mixture 
when the leaves are about two-thirds grown ; then fol- 
low with other applications of the same preparation 
at intervals of about twelve days, until five or six 
sprayings in all have been made." (Galloway.) 

The fungus of the Apple Powdery Mildew dif- 
fers materially from the species affecting pear leaves 
just discussed. 'Tts vegetative system," says Dr Gal- 
loway, ''instead of growing on the inside of the host is 
almost wholly external, and obtains its nourishment by 
means of suckers which it sends into the cells of the 
leaf or stem as the case may be. It covers the various 
parts of the plant with a grayish, powdery, meal-like 
growth — hence the name Powdery Mildew." 

Remedies — ''Spray the seedlings with the ammo- 
niacal solution or copper carbonate, first when the leaves 
are about half grown, and thereafter at intervals of 
twelve days. Following this plan three sprayings will 
usually be made before budding, and at least two 
after this operation, making five in all." (Galloway.) 
Or the Bordeaux mixture may be used. 

The Leaf-blight of the plum and cherry may be 
prevented by spraying with the Bordeaux mixture. 
Apply first when the leaves are one-third grown. 
"Between this date and the time for budding three 
more applications should be made at as nearly regular 
intervals as possible. Ten days or two weeks after 
the buds are inserted make the fifth application, then 
follow with the sixth two weeks later." The effect of 
spraying plum stocks is well shown in the picture on 
page 103, reproduced from t\\e Journal of Mycology. 
Be sure that there is an excess of lime in the Bordeaux 
mixture. 



PART III 



SPRAYING SHADE TREES, ORNA- 
MENTAL PLANTS AND FLOWERS 



An Outfit for Spraying: Shade Trees 

(From Connecticut Experiment Station) 



Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental 
Plants and Flowers 



SHADE TREES 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The Woolly Maple Bark-louse is often one of 
the most destructive shade-tree pests. Its presence is 
shown in spring and early summer by the occur- 
rence upon the twigs of a brown, circular, leathery 
scale about }i inch in diameter, beneath which is a 
peculiar white, fluffy, cottony mass. In the spring 
there may be found, in each of these masses, great 
numbers (from 700 to 1000) of small, white, spherical 
eggs. Early in summer these eggs hatch into young 
lice, which scatter over the trees, wandering about on 
the twigs and leaves for a few days, and, finally, fixing 
themselves upon the lower leaf surface, insert their tinv 
beaks and suck out the sap. They remain in this posi- 
tion several weeks, when a few of them become fully 
developed winged males. These mate with the remain- 
der, which are females^ and soon die. But the females 
remain upon the leaves until nearly time for the latter 
to fall in autumn, when they desert themi and migrate 
to the twigs, attaching themselves by inserting their 
beaks into the bark. Here they remain until spring, 
the eggs gradually developing. 

Remedy — Spray infested trees in June, when the 
lice have just hatched, w^ith kerowater or kerosene 
emulsion. 



io8 



SPRAYING CROPS 



The twigs of deciduous and coniferous trees are 
often infested during winter by small bags or sacs 
(e) suspended from the leaves or branches. If one of 
the larger of these bags be cut open, there will be found 
within it a browm, membranous shell (the pupa-case of 
the moth) filled with many small, yellow eggs (e). In 
this condition the Bag-worm or Basket-worm passes 
the winter. Late in spring the larvae hatch, and form 




Bag=wonn 

a, larva; 3, male pupa; female moth; d, male moth; e, bag and pupa- 
case cut open to show eggs : y, full-grown larva with bag; ^, young larvae with 
their conical coverings. (After Riley) 

little cases of fragments of leaves fastened together by 
silken threads. Beneath these cases (g) they feed 
upon the foliage, enlarging them as the larvae develop, 
and during later life using bits of twigs or stems in 
their construction. When fully developed, the worms 
descend to the earth by means of silken threads, and 
crawl about until they reach the bases of other trees, 
which they ascend. This is the way the species 



SHADE TREES 



109 



migrates. The larvae pupate within the cases, and 
about three weeks later change to moths. The two 
sexes of the moths differ greatly, the male (d) having 
well-developed wings, while the female (c) is wingless. 
The latter deposits her eggs in the empty pupa-case 
from w^hich she has emerged, falls to the ground, 
and dies. 

Remedies — Spray with an arsenical poison early 
in summer when the worms are young. Pick off the 
cases in winter. 



White=marked Tussock=inoth 

a, female moth on cocoon; 6, young larva hanging by thread; c, female pupa; 
d, male pupa : male moth. (After Riley) 



The larvae of the White-marked Tussock-moth 
is one of the most beautiful of our caterpillars. If the 
trunks or larger limbs of maple, apple, elm, or any 
other of the trees infested by this insect, be examined 
in autumn or winter, one may find, scattered here and 
there upon the bark, thin gray cocoons, many of them 
being covered with large bunches of spherical white 
eggs fastened together by a protecting froth-like mass. 
In May, soon after the leaves come out, these eggs 
hatch into small caterpillars, which feed upon the 
foliage, becoming full-grown in six or seven weeks. 
Their general color is bright yellow, with head and 
tubercles on rear of back red, and four cream-colored 




no 



SPRAYING CROPS 



tufts on back. About the middle of July the cater- 
pillars spin thin, whitish cocoons upon the bark, and 
i\ fortnight later come forth as moths. These lay eggs 
for a second brood, which complete their transforma- 
tions before winter sets in. The male moth differs 



greatly from the female moth, the former being winged 
(e), while the latter is wingless (a). The female 
crawls upon the top of the cocoon (a) as soon as she 
emerges from the pupa state, where, after mating, she 
deposits her eggs in a single mass and dies. 




Apple Leaf 

Denuded by young Web-worms 



I 



SHADE TREES III 

Remedies — Spray trees as soon as caterpillars are 
noticed, with arsenate of lead or some other arsenical 
poison. Pick off egg cases in winter. 

The work of few insects is more universally known 
than that of the Fall Web-worm. Late in summer 
and early in autumn the conspicuous, unsightly webs 
of this pest may be seen in nearly every orchard and 
hedgerow over a large portion of the United States. 
The adult is a pretty, white moth (c), which deposits 
eggs on the leaves of various trees early in summer. 




Fail Web=worm 
a, larva; ^, pupa; moth. (After Riley) 



These soon hatch into young caterpillars that begin 
at once to spin a protective web. They feed upon the 
parenchyma of the foliage, leaving the network of 
veins, and grow quite rapidly, enlarging the web as 
they develop. The full-grown larvae are a little more 
than an inch long, with the body densely clothed with 
yellowish hairs. They now leave their nests and 
descend to the ground, where they spin slight silken 
cocoons within which they change to pupae. 

Remedies — It is an easy matter to cut the webs 
off and burn or crush the larvae. The pests may also 




Transformations of the Elm=leaf Beetle 

(After Riley) 



SHADE' TREES II3 

be destroyed by spraying with an arsenical poison when 
the larvae are young. 

During recent years the Imported Elm Leaf- 
beetle has been exceedingly destructive in many cities 
of the eastern states, to that most beautiful of shade- 
trees, the elm. The eggs (a) are laid on the under side 
of the leaf in two or three rows. In about a week the 
larvae hatch and begin eating the leaves, causing them 
to look as if riddled with fine shot. They become 
fully grown (g) in two or three wrecks, when they 
descend to the ground, and change to pupae (/). Ten 
days later the perfect beetles ( c, natural size ; mag • 
nified) come forth and eat the leaves, although the 
damage done by the insect in this state is less than 
that done by larvae. There are three or four broods 
each season, and the beetles pass the winter in hollow 
trees and under old leaves. 

Remedies — Spray with arsenate of lead when the 
eggs are being laid, in order to kill the larvae before 
they have done any damage. The addition of a little 
flour to the poison mixture seems to render it more 
effective. To reach the tops of high trees a pump of 
considerable power is required. In July destroy the 
larvae as they come to the ground to pupate. 

An excellent discussion of shade-tree insects and 
methods of controlling them by Dr L. O. Howard may 
be found in the yearbook of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for 1895. 



THE ROSE 



INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The Rose Slug is the young or larva of a four- 
winged saw-fly. It eats the pulp of the leaves, giving 
the foliage a scorched appearance. The eggs are laid 
singly in the skin of the leaf, and the larvae hatch in 
about a fortnight. They become full-grown in three 




Rose Leaf=hopper 

adult; (5, pupa; magnified 



weeks ; they have a small, round, yellowish head, and 
a green body, which is soft and nearly transparent. 
Leaving the bushes they burrow into the soil an inch 
or two and make oval cocoons of silk mixed with par- 
ticles of earth. They remain in these until the follow- 
ing season, when they emerge as flies. 

Remedies — Spray with arsenate of lead or 
hellebore. 



THE ROSE 



The Rose Leaf-hopper is a small whitish insect, 
found on the lower surface of rose leaves, sucking out 
the cell contents and giving the upper surface a white- 
spotted appearance. The adult (a) is a little more than 
I -10 inch long, with a yellowish- white body, and 
white semi-transparent wing covers. It has long hind 
legs, by means of which it is enabled to make tremen- 
dous leaps when disturbed. 

Remedies — These little pests are much easier to 
destroy before they are fully developed than after- 
wards. Spraying or dusting with pyrethrum, or 




Aphis 

a, wingless form, magriified ; 5, winged form, magnified; 

(After Saunders) 



c, same, natural size 



insect-powder, is a simple and efficient remedy. 
Tobacco, in the form either of a powder or a decoction, 
is also good ; and kerosene either in mechanical mix- 
ture or in emulsion will destroy the pests. 



FLOWERS AND POTTED PLANTS 

Greenhouse plants are often seriously injured by 
minute, reddish mites that congregate on the lower 
leaf surface, spinning a fine protective web and suck- 
ing out the juices of the plants through their tiny 



ii6 



SPRAYING CROPS 



beaks. These are Red Spiders. They multiply be- 
neath their silken webs, where one may find colonies 
of individuals (so small as to be scarcely visible to the 
naked eye) in all stages of existence. The infested 
leaves assume a yellowish hue, and many of them 
finally fall ofl:. 

Rciiicdics — The Red Spider flourishes bes-t in a 
dry atmosphere. It is seldom troublesome in green- 
houses where the air is kept saturated with moisture 
and the plants are sprayed with water every day. In 
window gardens the plants should be sprayed with 
water or soap-suds every day, as soon as they show 
signs of the presence of this pest. 

There are many different species of Aphides, 
Plant-lice, or "Greenflies," affecting various flow- 
ering-plants. But all are quite similar in life-history 
and habits, and the same remedies apply to each. They 
all multiply with marvelous rapidity, on account of 
their habit of giving birth to living young without the 
presence of male aphides. They mature rapidly, and 
obtain food by inserting their pointed beaks into the 
stem or leaf and sucking out the sap. There are 
generally two forms of them, one being winged 
{b, c) and the other wingless (a). These insects are 
the commonest pests of the flowering-pJants. 

Remedies — Spray with strong soap-suds or 
kerosene in mechanical mixture or emulsion, fish-oil 
soap, whale-oil soap, or tobacco decoction. 



PART IV 

SPRAYING VEGETABLES, FIELD- 
CROPS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



Transformations of the Colorado Potato^ beetle 

(After Riley) 



Spraying Vegetables, Field-Crops 
and Domestic Animals 



THE POTATO 

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE 

The Colorado Potato-beetle deposits its orange- 
colored eggs (a) in masses, varying in number from 
a dozen to fifty or more, on the under surface of the 
potato-leaf, and occasionally also upon the leaves of 
grass, smart-weed, or other plants in the potato field. 
They hatch about a week later into peculiar little grubs 
(fo) that feed upon the foliage a few weeks. They 
then descend to the ground, where just beneath the soil 
surface, or under the rubbish above it, they change to 
pupae {c). About ten days later they emerge as 
perfect beetles. There are from two to four annual 
broods, the number varying with the latitude ; and the 
insect hibernates in the beetle state. 

Remedies — Spray with almost any of the arsenical 
poisons. Arsenate of lead has been found best by the 
Maine Experiment Station. The application should be 
made as soon as the beetles appear, in order to kill off 
the first brood, and it must be repeated as often during 
the season as is necessary to keep the pests in check. 

The Flea-beetle is one of the most troublesome 
insect pests affecting potatoes. Although very small 
it appears in enormous numbers and eats small holes 
in the surface of the leaves. They thus not only injure 
the tissues of the leaf directly, but the holes they make 



120 



SPRAYING CROPS 



furnish easy access to the spores of disease-producing 
organisms. 

Remedies — Spraying with arsenate of lead and 
Bordeaux mixture will prevent to a great extent at 
least the depredations of this pest. The more thorough 
the application the more effective will it be. 

FUNGUS ENEMIES 

There are at least two distinct fungous diseases 
which are called the Potato Rot or Potato Blight. 
One of these is the Late Blight or Downy ]\Iildew, 
due to the fungus Pliytopliora infestans; and the other 
is the Early Blight or Leaf-spot Disease, due to 
the fungus called Alteniaria sohni. They may usually 
be distinguished by the fact that leaves aft'ected by 
the former have on their under surface a white, velvety 
mould, visible to the naked eye, but more readily seen 
through the microscope ; with the Early Blight no such 
mildew is present. \\\\\\ both, the foliage of plants 
attacked becomes spotted with brown, and the spots 
gradually enlarge, finally involving the whole leaf, 
and then cause the stems to wilt and wither. 

According to Professor F. L. Scribner, the life- 
history of the Downy ]\Iildew Potato Rot Fungus 
may be summarized as follows : 'The spores lighting 
upon the leaves of the potato germinate in drops of dew 
or rain, and the product of germination — the zoospores 
— penetrate to the interior tissues of the plant, and after 
growing for a time through these tissues, the mycelium 
sends out, chiefly from the under surface of the leaves, 
slender fruiting branches, whereon are produced a new 
crop of spores. These may carry the disease to the 
other plants in the field, or to the other parts of the 
same plant ; that is, they may serve to spread the dis- 
ease in the tops, which we term blight, over the entire 
field, or by being washed into the ground they may 



THE POTATO 



121 



reach the tubers and cause the rot. The fungus once 
having gained entrance to the tubers, may or may not 
vegetate rapidly. Its presence, however, is soon m^ade 
evident by a browning of the flesh underlying the skin, 
and by more or less extensive discoloration and de- 
pression of the latter." When such affected tubers 
are planted, the disease is very likely to develop in the 
plants from them. 



The Early i^light appears early in summer in 
the shape of small brown, brittle spots, scattered over 
the leaf. Careful inspection shows that their upper 
surfaces are more or less roughened by darker areas 
rising above the dead gray tissue. The spots grad- 
ually enlarge, and finally run together to form large 
brown patches, the intermediate tissues becoming 
yellow or sickly green in color. . The entire plant 
finally withers, and dies long before the proper period, 
the tubers being small — generally less than half full 
size. But the tubers do not rot and are of fair quality. 
This fungus has proven difficult to study in the field, 




a 





122 



SPRAYING CROPS 



the spores being produced only in the later stages of 
the disease. It winters over in the spore stage on 
the dead vines. 

Remedies — A number of experiments have shown 
that these diseases may be prevented by spraying with 
the Bordeaux mixture, provided the seed potatoes used 
are free from infection. To be sure of this, seed 
should be obtained from regions where blight and rot 
do not occur upon potatoes, or from fields which were 
sprayed the year before. Then spray from two to four 
times with the Bordeaux mixture, making the first ap- 
plication when the vines are about one-half grown, or 
earlier if signs of the disease appear, and repeat the 
application when it is washed ofif — in about a fort- 
night usually. Add half a pound of London purple or 
Paris green to each barrel of the mixture whenever the 
Colorado beetles threaten injury. While the best 
results are most likcl\- to be reached when the seed is 
not infected, very satisfactory ones are obtained from 
spraying crops from ordinary seed. 

The beneficial effect of treatment vrith Bordeaux 
mixture, as it resulted m some experiments by Profes- 
sor Jones, of \^ermont, is shown on page 121. Tlie 
treated vines yielded marketable tubers at the rate of 
291 bushels per acre, while those untreated yielded 
only at the rate of 99^ bushels per acre. 

Brozcji Rot — Besides the two maladies already 
discussed, there is a form of blight and rot called 
''brown rot," due to bacteria. This occurs on tomatoes 
and egg plants as well as potatoes, and is worst in the 
south. There is no spotting of the leaves as in the 
preceding blight, but the first symptom is a sudden 
wilting of the entire top, which is soon followed by 
the shriveling and blackening of the leaves and stems. 
The disease passes from the stem to the tubers, causing 
a browning of the interior, which is soon followed by 



THE POTATO 



123 



soft rot. The beetles or other insects feeding- upon 
the diseased plants carry the germs to the healthy ones. 
The germs also live over in the soil. 

Remedies — Avoid land which has recently borne 
diseased potatoes, tomatoes or egg plants. If the 
disease occurs, all wilting vines should be removed and 
destroyed at once and the tubers^ if stored, should be 
kept cool and dry. The chief remedial measure con- 
sists in thorough spraying with arsenites, or Bordeaux 
mixture and arsenites, to keep the vines free from the 
insects which carry the germs. 



THE CABBAGE 



IXSECT EXEMIES OF THE LEAVES 

The transformations of the Imported Cabbage- 
worm — the most destructive insect afifecting cabbage 
— are ilhistrated in the picture on page 125. The adiilt 
is a common white butterfly, which deposits, singly or 
in clusters of two or three each, small, yellowish-white 
eggs upon the cabbage. The eggs soon hatch into 
little green larvae that feed upon the leaves. In about 
two weeks they become full-grown (a),' when they 
desert the cabbage plants, and finding some suitable 
shelter — beneath a board or under a coping of a fence 
— change to chrysalids (b) . They remain in this con- 
dition about ten days, when they emerge as butterflies, 
to lay eggs for another brood of worms. The winter 
is passed in the chrysalis state.. 

Rcjjicdics — Pyrethrum (insect-powder or buhach), 
hot water and kerosene either in mechanical mixture or 
emulsion, are the best remedies. The insect-powder 
may be applied as a dry powder or be mixed with 
water, in the proportion of i ounce to 4 or 5 
gallons of water, and sprayed upon the plants. Dr 
Riley states that ''every worm visible upon the cab- 
bages may be killed by the use of hot water at the tem- 
perature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit. The water may 
be boiling hot when put in the watering-can, but it 
will not be too hot when it reaches the cabbage leaves." 
Kerosene in mechanical mixture or emulsion can 
advantageously be used when the plants are young, 
though there would appear to be danger of tainting the 
heads if applied to the fully developed plants. Which- 
ever method of treatment is adopted, it should be 



THE CABBAGE 



carried into practice at frequent intervals, thus keeping 
the worms well in check. If the plants are treated with 
insect-powder once a week during the time the worms 
are present, they will cause little or no trouble. 

There are several other caterpillars afifecting cab- 
bage — especially the Cabbage Plusia and the Zebra 
Caterpillar — which sometimes necessitate a spray- 
ing with kerosene emulsion or insect-powder. 

The Cabbage Aphis is a- small, greenish insect, 
generally covered with a whitish, mealy coating, that 




Imported Cabbage=worm 

a, larva; chrysalis; female butterfly. (After Riley) 



occurs in great numbers on the leaves and in the 
heads of cabbage. During the summer months it re- 
produces viviparously, but in autumn true males and 
females are developed, eggs being deposited by the 
latter upon the cabbage leaves. 

Remedy — Kerosene in mechanical mixture or 
emulsion and fish-oil soap are the most effective liquid 
insecticides that can be used against this insect. 

Young cabbages are often attacked by flea-beetles, 
especially the V>\\vy-striped Flea-beetle. It is a 
small, shining black beetle, i-io inch long, with a 



126 



SPRAYING CROPS 



broad, yellow, wavy stripe on each wing-cover It 
feeds upon the surface of the leaf, gnawing out little 
pits. The females deposit minute whitish eggs upon 
the roots of cruciferous plants, such as radish, cabbage, 
turnip, etc, and the larvae feed • upon these roots, 
sometimes doing serious damage. The full-grown 
larva is about }4 i^^^ch long, with a yellowish-wdiite 
body, and brown head. 

Reined ICS — Spray the plants with a strong tobacco 
decoction, or dust on powdered tobacco. 

In the southern states the Harlequin Cabbage- 
bug is a very troublesome pest. It feeds upon a 
variety of cruciferous plants, such as cabbage, radish, 
mustard, and turnip ; and passes the winter in the 
adult state. Early in spring eggs are deposited upon 
mustard or radish plants, upon which the resulting 
bugs develop. The second brood attacks the cabbage 
and the insects continue to develop upon this crop until 
autumn. According to Mr Howard Evarts Weed, 
"there is but one efficient remedy for this insect, which 
is, to destroy the brood which lives over winter, when 
they congregate upon the mustard or radish plants. 
Here they may be destroyed very easily by the applica- 
tion of kerosene (not emulsified) by means of a hand 
force-pump or common watering bucket. If the 
insects are thus destroyed early in the season, it will 
almost wholly prevent injury later. The insects fly 
but little, and are thus not apt to come from a neigh- 
boring field." Those bugs or eggs w^hich may be 
seen on cabbage should be picked ofif and destroyed. 

asparagus 

The Asparagus Rust is a very destructive fun- 
gous disease in some regions. The damage it does 
varies greatly from year to year. Experiments in 



ASPARAGUS 



127 



New York^ Delaware and other states show that its 
injuries may be prevented to a great extent by spray- 
ing with Bordeaux mixture to which rosin soap has 
been added to make it adhere better. Professor F. D. 
Chester's recommendations are as follows : ''Dissolve 
2 pounds of the rosin soap in the necessary quantity 
of water and add to the Bordeaux mixture, which is 
prepared in the ordinary way. The first application 
in this section should be made about the middle of 
July and repeated about two weeks later. The eco- 




f 9 



Harlequin Cabbage=bug 

(5, nymphs; eggs; /, adult; adult with wings extended — all natural size; 
d eggs, side view; eggs, view from above — enlarged. (After Riley) 

nomical spraying of asparagus demands a specially 
devised spraying outfit, and should consist of a cart 
with wheels sufficiently high so that the axles will 
brush only the tops of the plants. On this cart is 
mounted a barrel and a pump, the latter being con- 
nected with a length of pipe running along the back 
of the cart and parallel to the axles. To this horizon- 
tal pipe are attached three tees and short nipples, to 
which are attached the nozzles. By driving across a 
field in the direction of the rows a rather broad strip 
of plants can be sprayed as rapidly as it takes a horse 
to slowly pace the ground. 



128 



SPRAYING CROPS 



'The advisability of spraying asparagus will 
depend on circumstances. If the rust has been serious 
the year before, it is to be expected that it will make 
its appearance on the following season, and it would 
be advisable to forestall its appearance by spraying. 
It will not do to wait until it shows itself before 
spraying, as it is then too late.'' 



GRAIN CROPS 



INSECT ENEMIES 

The Chinch Bug has long- been recognized as 
one of the arch-enemies of American agriculture. The 
adult (h) is a small blackish insect, slightly less than 




Chinch Bug 

a, ($, eggs; c, e,/, youag; nymph or pupa; h, adult. Magnified 
(After Riley) 



1-5 inch long, with the legs dark yellow, and their 
tips black. The females deposit eggs about the roots 
of grass and grain. From these hatch young bugs 
(c) that do not differ in general form from the adults. 
They suck the sap from various plants of the grass 
family, gradually increasing in size, and moulting at 
intervals. In a few weeks they become nearly full- 
grown, but instead of changing to a quiet chrysalis 
state, they simply moult again and continue feeding 
as before. In these early stages, which correspond to 



I30 



SPRAYING CROPS 



the larva and chrysalis, they are called nymphs. The 
older nymphs (g) are nearly as large as the full- 
grown bugs, differing mainly in the absence of wings. 
In about a week they again moult and come forth as 
adult bugs. 

Remedies — Chinch bugs are easily killed by 
kerosene, and by means of improved spraying 
machines this substance can be used against them to 
good advantage. The best time to choose in which 
to kill them is when they are migrating from field 
to field. 




1^ 

Variegated Cut=worm 

a, larva; b, moth. (After Riley) 



Corn, oats, and other field and garden crops 
suffer greatly from the attacks of Cut-worms, of 
which there are many species. They are larvae of 
medium-sized, night-flying moths, and are thick, 
naked worms that curl up when disturbed. Most of 
them feed upon grass or clover w^hen young, becom- 
ing about half grown by winter time, when they seek 
the shelter of some log or stone, or burrow into the 
soil. Here they hibernate, and in spring come forth 



GRAIN CROPS 



in search of food. They now attack a variety of 
young plants, biting ofif the stems and feeding upon 
the leaves. They become full-grown in spring or in 
early summer, and pupate beneath the soil surface, 
and three or four wxeks later emerge as moths. The 
larva (a) and moth (b) of the Variegated Cut- 
worm (A gratis saucia) are represented, natural size, 
on page 130, Some species have two or more broods 
each season, while others have but one. Cut- worms 
are especi'ally likely to do damage in fields and gardens 
close to grass-lands, and to crops immediately fol- 
lowing grass. 

Remedies — Spray a small plat of clover with an 
arsenical poison and then cut it late in the afternoon 
and strew in bunches over the field to be protected. 
The worms prowling about at night eat of the 
poisonous baits and are killed. 

The Army-worm hatches from eggs laid by a 
handsome brown moth between the sheaths of grass 
blades. The larvae are at first green, but later be- 
come ornamented with longitudinal stripes of yellow, 
gray, and black. They feed upon the leaves of grass, 
wheat, oats, rye, etc, and become full-grown in about 
a month. Occasionally they become so numerous that 
they exhaust their food supplies, and then are forced 
to seek other feeding grounds. At such times the 
''armies" appear, and moving in solid masses sweep 
all grasses and cereals before themi. The larvae 
pupate in earthen cells, emerging a fortnight later 
as moths. 

Remedies — One of the most promising methods 
of combating this insect is that of thoroughly spray- 
ing strips of grass or other crops in front of the 
advancing host with mixtures of arsenate of lead and 
water. 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



INSECT ENEMIES 

Our various domestic animals frequently sufifer 
from the attacks of Lice. Three of the commoner 
species afifecting horses and cattle are shown below. 
Animals affected by them lose flesh and are weak- 
ened. The lice generally deposit their eggs or ''nits'' 
on the hairs. 

Remedy — The best method of destroying lice is 
to spray or wash the infested animals with a well- 
prepared kerosene emulsion. If this is well made it 




can be applied to cattle and horses, hogs and sheep, 
with no danger of injury to them, while it will destroy 
all the lice with which it comes in contact. Professor 
C. P. Gillette, who first gave this method a thorough 
trial, recommends applying it with a force-pump and 
spray nozzle, rubbing it in thoroughly with the 
finger tips at the same time. It kills the lice, and 
leaves the hair of the animal in good condition. The 
lice may also be destroyed by treating with a strong 
tobacco decoction — a pound of tobacco being boiled 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



in two gallons of water — or a wash of carbolic-acid 
soap. But the first-named remedy is best. The stalls 
and woodwork of the quarters occupied by the in 
fested animals should also be treated. 

The Horn Fly is a recently imported insect that 
often annoys cattle by sucking their blood and light- 
ing upon their horns. The eggs are deposited in 
freshly dropped cow-du^ig, in which the larvae 



develop, and pupate in the soil beneath. There are 
four or five broods each season. During hot weather 
the transformations of the insect — from egg to 
imago — ^may be completed within two weeks. 

Remedies — Spray cattle twice a week, either 
with kerosene emulsion, to which a little tobacco de- 
coction has been added, or fish-oil, to which a little 
carbolic acid has been added. Or rub on by means 
of a brush or cloth. One stockman has had good 
success by simply dampening the tips of the hairs with 
a rag dipped in crude petroleum. 




Horn Fly 

magnified 



Cow=horn 

with band of resting flies, reduced 

(From Insect Life) 



Index 



PAGE 

Aphides ii6 

Apple, The 57 

aphis 65 

curculio 62 

flea-beetle 64 

leaf-crumpler 99 

leaf-roller 99 

powdery mildew 104 

rot 67, 68 

scab 67 

skeletonizer 100 

worm 2 

Army- worm 131 

Arsenate of lead 12 

- senite of lime 14 

Arsenites and copper carbonate.. 30 

Asparagus rust 126 

Cag-worm 108 

Basket-worm 108 

Black-spot 67 

peach aphis 73 

rot 95 

Bordeaux mixture 20 

and arsenites . 28 

Brown-rot of stone fruits .... 70, 75 

grapes 9^ 

potato 122 

Bud-moth 66 

Cabbage, The 124 

aphis 125 

plusia 125 

worm 124 

Canker-worm 5, 63 

Carbonate of copper 26 

Cherry, The 80 

aphis 80 

leaf -blight 81 

Chinch-bug 129 

Codling-moth 2, 60, 76 

Colorado potato-beetle 119 

Combining insecticides and fun- 
gicides 28 

Cost of sf raying 43 

Copper carbonate 26 

sulphate 2 

Cost of spraying materials 30 

Crude petroleum 16 



PAGE 

Currant, The 90 

aphis 92 

bug . 91 

leaf-hopper 90 

worm 90 

Cut-worms 130 

Domestic animals 132 

Downy mildew of grapes 7 

potato 120 

Elm leaf-beetle m 

Eye-spotted bud-moth 66 

Fall web-worm no 

Feeding-habits of insects 6 

Fish-oil soap 18 

Flowers 115 

Formaldehyde-glycerine mixture. 28 

Four-lined leaf -bug 91 

Fruit-bark borer 69 

Fungicides 19 

Gooseberry, The 90 

mildew 93 

Grain-crops . 129 

f ^e, The 95 

flea-beetle 95 

Harlequin cabbage-bug 126 

Hellebore 14 

Horn-fly 133 

Hyposulphite of soda 27 

Imported cabbage-worm 124 

Insecticides 10 

Insect-powder 14 

Insects, feeding-habits of 6 

Kerosene 14 

Kerosene emulsion 15 

Kerowater sprays 15 

Leaf-crumpler 99 

skeletonizer 100 

Lice 132 

Lichens 79 

Lime-spray ^9 

Liver of sulphur 27 

London purple 12 

L^^e solution 28 

Maple bark-louse 107 

Nozzles 38 

Nurser}^ stock 99 

Oyster-shell bark-louse 59 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Parasitic fungi, development of. 7 

Paris green 10 

Peach . , 73 

aphis 73 

leaf-curl 74 

rot 75 

Pear, The 76 

slug 76, 81 

leaf-blight 77, 102 

psylla 77 

scab^ 78 

Pernicious scale 57 

Petroleum, crude 16 

Philosophy of spraying i 

Plum, The 69 

curculio ....4, 62, 69, 73, 76, 80 

gouger 69 

leaf-blight 102, 104 

rot 70 

Potassium sulphide 27 

Potato, The 119 

beetle 119 

brown-rot 122 

early blight 120 

late blight 120 

rot 120 

Powdery mildew 102 

Prejudice against spraying 31 

Profits in spraying 45 

Pruning trees 53 

Pyrethrum 14 

Quince, The 79 

Raspberry, The 97 

anthracnose 97 

cane-rust 97 

slug 97 

Red-legged flea-beetle 73 



PAGE 

Red-spider 116 

Resin soap 18 

Rose leaf -hopper 115 

slug 114 

San Jose scale 57, 73, 99 

Scheele's green 13 

Shade trees 107 

Shot-hole fungus 71 

Soda hyposulphite 27 

Spraying against insects i 

and the weatiier 49 

apparatus 32 

cost of ; 43 

calendar 50 

materials, cost of 30 

nozzles 38 

philosophy of i 

precautions 53 

prejudice against 31 

profits of 49 

trees in blossom, 49 

Strawberry, The 85 

leaf-blight 87 

leaf-beetles 87 

leaf-roller 85 

root-worms 86 

slug 85 

Sulphate of copper 27 

Tent caterpillar 64 

Tobacco decoction 19 

Wavy-striped flea-beetle 125 

Whale-oil soap 19 

White-marked tussock-moth .... 109 

Woolly aphis 60 

bark-louse 107 

Zebra caterpillar 125 



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" DISPARENE " is safer than any other insecti- 
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af sprayed crops and descriptions of 28 kinds of spraying materials, 
pnmps, etc. 



ADVERTISEMEXTS 



SFRAmfG PREVENTS BUGHT 

OTATOBUGS 

5AYEWURPOIAT0. 
TOMiffO.aBBAGE, 
ASB^GUS.TO&ACCQ 
'grape, COTTON AND 
OTHER CROPS . 
TPRAYERS prevent BLKiHt 
,mFUH<jOU5 DJSEASESAHD ROT 
FBEETLES.WORMS.MOniS.MEXlCAN 
— ™^_™™;.-WEEVILS.ETC. 

ASPINWALL M^^^O., Jackson, Mi€h 




A SEVERE AND PRACTICAL TEST 

Ithaca, N. Y., July 10, 1902. 
Gentlemen : It gives me pleasure to report that y(Vir Potato 
Sprayer is a s^reat success. It does its work efficiently and quickly. 
/ can iioiv Perform the ivork of spraying potatoes iii one-qiiarter of the 
time formerly required, and one man and a horse will do the work 
which formerly required the services of three men and a horse. 
I shall hereafter recommend your sprayer to those who inquire of 
me where a good machine caii be secured. 

Yours very truly, L. A. CLINTON, 
Assistant Agriculturist, Cornell University Agr'l Experiment Sta. 



LONDON PURPLE 

To obtain sorxD, handsome fkiit spray 
with LONDON PURPLE (trade - mark), 
which has been the popular, safe and 

Effective Insecticide 

for use against Potato Bugs, Cotton 
Worms, Caxkek AYorms, Codling Moth, 
CuRCULio, etc., for more than a 

QUARTER OF A CENT UP Y 

Thousands of tons have been used, ensuring 
in manufacture a perfection onlv attained 
by vast experience. LONDON PURPLE is 
exactly suited for farmers' and fruit growers' 
uses. '"Write for circular. Manufactured 
solely by 

HEMINGWAY'S LONDON PURPLE CO., Ltd., 
133 Front Street, New York. 

Works : Marsh Gate Laiio, Stratford, London. England, 



STANDARD BOOKS. 



Forest Planting. 

By H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care 
of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands 
on plains and mountains. The author has fully described 
those European methods which have proved to be most useful 
in maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This expe- 
rience has been adapted to the different climates and trees of 
America, full instructions being given for forest planting of 
our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain 
or valley. Illustratedo 250 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 

Soils and Crops of the Farm, 

By George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas F. Hunt. The 
methods of making available the plant food in the soil are 
described in popular language. A short history of each of 
the farm crops is accompanied by a discussion of its culture. 
The useful discoveries of science are explained as applied 
in the most approved methods of culture. Illustrated. 310 
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . . $1.00 

Land Draining. 

A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of 
draining, by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended 
experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying 
out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer 
to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the disap- 
pointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for 
practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference 
m regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing, 
aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats. 
Illustrated. 200 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00 

Barn Plans and Outbuildings, 

Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valu- 
able work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the 
construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers. 
Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of 
barns, grain barns, horse barns, cattle barns, sheep barns, corn- 
houses, smokehouses, icehouses, pig pens, granaries, etc. 
There are likewise chapters on birdhouses, doghouses, tool 
sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings, 
workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits, 
etc. 235 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.00 



STANDARD BOOKS. 



Herbert's Hints to Horse Keepers. 

B}- the late Hexry William Herbert (Frank Forester). 
This is one of the best and most popular works on the horse 
prepared in this country. A complete manual for horsemen, 
embracing : How to breed a horse : how to btiy a horse ; how 
to break a horse: how to use a horse: how to feed a horse; 
h.ow to physic a horse (allopathy or homeopathy) ; how to 
groom a horse : how to drive a horse ; how to ride a horse, 
etc. Beautifully illustrated. 425 pages. 5x7 inches. 
Cloth $1-50 

Diseases of Horses and Cattle. 

By Dr. D. ?\IcIxto5h, V. S.. professor of veterinary 
science in the tmiversity of Illinois. Written expressl}' for the 
farmer, stockman ?nd veterinary strident. A new work on 
the treatment of animal diseases, according to the modern 
status nf veterinary science, has become a necessity. Such an 
one is this volume of over 400 pages, written by one of the 
most eminent veterinarians of our country. Illustrated. 426 
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $i=75 

The lee Crop. 

By Therox L. Hiles. How to harvest, ship and use ice. 
A complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice 
dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers. and all 
interested m icehouses, cold storage, and the handling or use 
,of ice in any way. Including many recipes for iced dishes and 
beverages. The book is illustrated by cuts of the tools and 
machinery used in cutting and storing ice. and the difTerent 
forms of icehouses and cold storage buildings. Illustrated. 
122 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. .... $i.oc 

Tlie Seerets of Health, or Hoz^' Xot to Be Siekj and 
Hoz^' to Get ]]\^U from Sickness. 

By S. H. Platt. A. Al.. ^I. D.. late member of the Connect- 
icut Eclectic ]\Iedical Society, the National Eclectic ]\IedicaI 
Association, and honorary member of the National Bacterio- 
logical Society of America : our medical editor and author of 
"Talks V\'ith Our Doctor" and "Our Health Adviser." Nearly 
600 pages. An index of 20 pagess so that any topic may be 
instantly consulted. A new departure in med'ical knowledge 
for the people — the latest progress, secrets and practices of all 
schools of healing made available for the common people — 
health without medicine, nature without humbug, common 
sense without folly, science without fraud. 81 illustrations, 
576 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. .... $1.50 

2 



STANDARD BOOKS. 



Hunter and Trapper. 

By Halsey Thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman. 
The best modes of hunting and trapping are fully explained, 
and foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by fol- 
lowing his directions. Illustrated. 92 pages. 5x7 inches. 
Cloth $0.50 

Batty's Practical Taxidermy and Home Decoration, 

By Joseph H. Batty, taxidermist for the government 
surveys and many colleges and museums in the United States. 
An entirely new and complete as well as authentic work on 
taxidermy — giving in detail full directions for collecting 
and mounting animals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, and 
general objects of natural history. 125 illustrations. 204 
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . , . $1.00 

Hemp, 

By S. S. Boyce. A practical treatise on the culture of 
hemp for seed and fiber, with a sketch of the history and 
nature of the hemp plant. The various chapters are devoted 
to the soil and climate adapted to the culture of hemp for 
seed and for fiber, irrigating, harvesting, retting and machin- 
ery for handling hemp. Illustrated. 112 pages. 5x7 inches. 
Cloth. $o.5G 

Alfalfa, 

By F. D. CoBURN. Its growth, uses and feeding value. 
The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without 
reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four and sometimes 
five cuttings annually for five, ten, or perhaps 100 years ; and 
that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious 
forage plants known, makes reliable information upon its pro- 
duction and uses of unusual interest. Such information is 
given in this volum.e for every part of America, by the highest 
authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 

Talks on Manure, 

By Joseph Harris^ M. S, A series of familiar and 
practical talks between the author and the deacon, the doctor, 
and other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures and 
fertilizers ; including a chapter especially written for it 
by Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England. 366 
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . ^ • $i'5Q 



STANDARD BOOKS. 



Practical Forestry, 

By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, 
planting and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical 
and popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United 
States, and notes on a large number of the most valuable 
exotic species. Illustrated. 300 pages. 5x7 inches. 
Cloth . $1.50 

irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard. 

By Henry Stewart. This work is offered to those 
American farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from 
painful experience, can readily appreciate the losses which 
result from the scarcity of water at critical periods. Fully 
illustrated. 276 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . %i.OG 

Irrigation Farming, 

By Lute Wilcox. A handbook for the practical applica- 
tion of water in the production of crops. A complete treatise 
on water " supply, canal construction, reservoirs and ponds, 
pipes for irrigation purposes, flumes and their . structure, 
methods of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the 
garden, the orchard and vineyard, windmills and pumps, 
appliances and contrivances. New edition, revised, enlarged 
and rewritten. Fv(/ usely illustrated. Over 500 pages. 5x7 
inches. Cloth. ....... $2.00 

Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and 
Market Value, 

By Maurice G. Kains, with a short account of its history 
and botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with 
either seed or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation, 
planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation, 
manures, enemies, selection for market arwl for improvement, 
preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected. 
This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus- 
trated, and should be in the hands of all v^^ho expect to grow 
this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and 
profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without inter- 
fering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and en- 
larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $0.50 

Truck Farming at the South, 

By A. Oemler. a work giving the experience of a suc- 
cessful grower of vegetables or ''garden truck" for northern 
markets. Essential to anyone who contemplates entering this 
profitable field of agriculture. Illustrated. 274 pages. 5x7 

inches. Cloth. $1.00 

4 



STANDARD BOOKS. 



Henderson's Practical Florictdttire, 

By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propaga- 
tion and cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one 
for florists and gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are 
constantly kept in mind, and we have a very comiplete treatise 
on the culti\^ation of flowers under glass, or in the open air, 
suited to those who grow flow^ers for pleasure as well as those 
who make them a matter of trade. New and enlarged edition. 
Beautifully illustrated. 325 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 

Mushrooms, How to Grow Them, 

By William Falconer. This is the most practical work 
on the subject ever written, and the only book on growing 
mushrooms published in America. The author describes how 
he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by 
the leading market gardeners, and for home use by the most 
successful private growers. Engravings drawn from nature 
expressly for this work. 170 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 

Play and Profit in My Garden. 

By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the 
rocky hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us 
how out of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit 
of $1000, and this while carrying on pastoral and literary 
labor. It is very rarely that so much literary tastfe and skill 
are mated to so much agricultural experience and good sense. 
Illustrated. 350 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00 

Fumigation Methods, 

By Willis G. Johnson. A timely up-to-date book on 
the practical application of the new methods for destroying 
insects with hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon bisulphid, the 
most powerful insecticides ever discovered. It is an indispen- 
sable book for farmers, fruit growers, nurserymen, gardeners, 
florists, millers, grain dealers, transportation companies, col- 
lege and experiment station workers, etc. Illustrated. 313 
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . . $1.00 

Fungi and Fungicides, 

By Prof. Clarence M. Weed. A practical manual con- 
cerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the 
means of preventing their ravages. The author has endeav- 
ored to give such a concise account of the most important 
facts relating to these as will enable the cultivator to combat 
them intelligently. 90 illustrations. 222 pages. 5x7 inches. 

paper, 50 cents; cloth $1.00 

5 



STANDARD BOOKS. 



Insects and Insecticides* 

By Clarence M. Weed, D. Sc., professor of entomology 
and zoology, New Hampshire college of agriculture. A practi- 
cal manual concerning noxious insects, and methods of 
preventing their injuries. Many illustrations. 334 pages. 
5x7 inches. Cloth. ....... $1.50 

How Crops Grow. 

By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson of Yale college. New and 
revised edition. A treatise on the chemical composition, 
structure and life of the plant. This book is a guide to the 
knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their 
structure and modes of development and growth ; of the com- 
plex organization of plants, and the use of the parts ; the 
germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both 
from the air and the soil. The book is indispensable to all 
real students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and 
tables of analysis. 416 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 

Tobacco Leaf, 

By J. B. KiLLEBREW and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture 
and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook 
on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, 
packing and selling tobacco, with an account of the opera- 
tions in every department of tobacco manufacture. The 
contents of this book are based on actual experiments in field, 
curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the 
only work of the kind in existence, and is destined to be the 
standard practical and scientific authority on the whole subject 
of tobacco for many years. 506 pages and 150 original en- 
gravings. 5x7 inches. Cloth. ..... $2.00 

Coburn's Swine Husbandry, 

By F. D. Coburn. New, revised and enlarged edition. 
The breeding, rearing and management of swine, and the 
prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest 
and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet 
offered. Illustrated. 312 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 

Home Pork Making, 

The art of raising and curing pork on the farm. By 
A. W. Fulton. A complete guide for the farmer, the country 
butcher and the suburban dweller, in all that pertains to hog 
slaughtering, curing, preserving and storing pork product — 
from scalding vat to kitchen table and dining room. Illus- 
trated. 125 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $0.50 



JUN 171903 



'1. 



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